I 

^^P        Southern  Branch 
IT  of  the 

University  of  California 


Los  Angeles 


Form  L  I 

JK 

■..S4 
J'81 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


Form  L-9-10m-2,'31 


USE  YOUR 
GOVERNMENT 


Traill  demonstration  of  points  of  a  good  dairy  cow  on  Erie  R.  E.  in 

Ohio. 


ii9   '  ^^ 


USE  YOUR 
GOVERNMENT 

What  Your  Government 
Does  For  You 

BY 

ALISSA  FRANC       . 


YOU  means  man  of  business,  farmer,  exporter,  home  maker, 
school  boy  or  school  girl.  In  some  way  the  Government 
helps  each  one  of  you.  This  book  tells  you  how.  The  Govern- 
ment needs  your  help.  You  cannot  give  it  unless  you  know 
how  the  Government  operates.     This  book  tells  you  how. 


NEW  YORK 
E.  P.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 

681  FIFTH  AVENUE 


COPTBIQHT,  1918, 

E.  p.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 

All  rights  reserved 


printed  in  the  Qnttcd  States  of  Hmertca 


AUTHOR'S  NOTE 

To  most  of  us  perhaps  the  Government  seems  to 
consist  of  a  body  of  men  wasting  an  undue  amount  of 
time  and  therefore  money  in  the  making  of  laws — 
some  good,  some  bad,  some  indifferent.  That  we 
can  make  direct  personal  use  of  the  Government 
whatever  our  calling  in  life  may  be,  but  few  of  us 
have  ever  realized.  This  book  is  an  attempt  to 
show  how  many  and  varied  are  the  ways  in  which 
the  Government  co-operates  with  and  serves  the  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States. 

I  wish  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  those  who 
by  their  courteous  explanation  of  their  work  and  by 
placing  at  my  disposal  data  connected  therewith, 
have  made  it  possible  for  this  volume  to  appear. 

AiiissA  Franc. 


CONTENTS 


PARTI 
THE  FARMER 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Planting  and  Growing  op  Crops    ...      3 
II.    Weather  Reports 15 

III.  Crop  Estimates  and  Census  of  Agriculture    24 

IV.  Controlling    of    Destructive    Insects    and 

Birds 33 

V.    Fostering     and  Improving     of     Livestock. 

Dairying 41 

VI.     Grazing  on  Forest  Lands  and  Forest  Fire 

Protection 45 

VII.    Rural  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering    .        .    51 
VIII.    Farm    Management.      Procuring    of    Farm 

Hands 56 

IX.    Marketing.     Regulatory  Measures.     Rural 

Organization 62 

X.     Farm  Finance 93 

XI.     Investigations  Concerning  Diseases  Preva- 
lent in  Rural  Districts   .        .        .  107 

XII.     Courses    for    Parents    Organized    by    the 

Bureau  of  Education        .        .        .  112 

XIII.  Government  Assistance  for  Rural  Schools  121 

XIV.  Manner  of  Disseminating  Information  by 

the  Department  of  Agriculture     .  125 
(a)  Demonstration  AVork  of  the  States 
Relations  Service  to:  The  Farmer, 
The  Farmer's  Wife,  The  Girls  and 
Boys  on  the  Farm     ....  125 


viii  Contents 

CHAPTER  PA6B 

(&)  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  .        .  143 

(c)  Farmers'     Institutes    and    Movable 

Schools 144 

(d)  Office    of    Information,    Office    of 

Publications  and  Library        .        .  145 


PART  II 

THE  WOULD-BE  SETTLER 

I.  The  Disposition  of  Public  Lands  .        .        .  153 

II,  Irrigation  of  Arid  Districts  at  Actual  Cost  161 

III.  The  Forest  Service  Work  for  the  Settler  165 

IV.  The  Work  of  the  Geological  Survey    .        .  167 

PART  III 

THE  MAN  IN  BUSINESS 

I,  General  Assistance  and  Information  Given 
to  Those  Transacting  Business  at 
Home  and  Abroad      ....  171 

II.  Special  Work  Done  for  Various  Industries  215 
(a)  The  Mining  Industry  ....  215 
(h)  The  Fishing  Industry  ....  226 

(c)  The  Fur  Trade 235 

(d)  The  Lumberman 237 

(e)  The  Shipper 238 

(/)  Scientific  Commercial  Investigations 

WITH  Agricultural  Products  .        .  242 
(g)  Development     of      Hydro-electric 

Power 248 

(h)  National  Parks 249 

III.    Protection  Afforded  the  Business  Man  By  : 

(a)  The  Federal  Trade  Commission  .  .  252 
(h)  The  Federal  Reserve  Board  .  .  258 
(c)  The  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  260 


Contents  ix 

PART  IV 
THE  WORKING  MAN 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Purpose  op  the  Department  of  Labor  .        .  267 
II.     Employment  Service       .        .        .        .        .  268 

III.  Information   Concerning   Labor   Issued   by 

THE  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics      .  274 

IV.  IMediation  in  Disputes 277 

V.    Investigations  for  the  Safety  and  Health 

of  Miners 281 

VI.    Investigations    Relative    to    Occupational 

Diseases  and  Industrial  Hygiene    .  284 

Vll.     Community  Organization        ....  285 

VIII.     Supervision  of  Seamen's  Contracts      .        .  288 


PART  V 
THE  IMMIGRANT 

I.     Care  During  Possible  Detention  at  Immi- 
gration Stations       ....  291 
II.    Helping  the  Immigrant  Get  Employment  .  294 

III.    Teaching      Immigrants      Citizenship      and 

English 296 

PART  VI 
THE  NEGRO 

I.  Statistics  and  Detailed  Report  Concerning 
the  Education  of  the  Negro  in  All 
Parts  of  the  United  States      .        .  309 

II.    Assistance  Given  to  the  Negro  Farmer        .  315 

III.  Home  Economics  for  the  Negro  Woman        .  317 

IV.  School  and  Home  Gardening  in  Cities  foe 

Negro  Children  ....  319 


X  Contents 

PART  VII 
THE  WOMAN  IN  HER  HOME 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Investigations  Made  and  Advice  Given  Con- 
cerning THE  Practical  Problems  op 
THE  Home  ......  323 

II.  Inspection    op    Foods,    Drugs     and    Meat — 

PuRiPYiNG  OP  Water  ....  331 

III.  The  Mother  and  Baby 336 

IV.  Employment  Service — Women's  Division     .  349 

PART  VIII 
GIRLS  AND  BOYS 


r) 


I.  What  the  Government  Does  to  Assist  Edu- 

cation          35 

II.  Employment  Service  and  Enforcement  of 

Federal  Child  Labor  Act        .        .  368 

III.  Reading  Circles 370 

IV.  School  and  Home  Gardening         .        .        .  371 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND 
DIAGRAMS 

Train  Demonstration  of  Points  of  a  Good  Dairy  Cow 
on  the  Erie  R.  R.  in  Ohio      ....      Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Heaters   in   Operation   after   a  Warning   from   the 

Weather  Bureau 16 

Crop  Reporters  Waiting  to  Telegraph      ....      16 

Specimen  of  Flood  Warning  Issued  by  the  Weather 
Bureau 20 

Specimen  of  Monthly  Crop  Report 25 

Spraying  Cart  used  by  Bureau  of  Entomology  in 
Operations  against  the  Gipsy  and  Brown  Tail  Moth      34 

Vaccinating  Cattle  against  Black  Leg  with  Vaccine 
Furnished  Free  of  Charge  by  the  Government     .      41 

Dipping  Cattle  in  Arsenical  Solution  to  Kill  Ticks  .       41 

Dairy  Meeting — How  the  Model  of  a  Cow  Stall  was 
Used  in  Discussing  Model  Barns 43 

Poultry  and  Egg  Packing  Demonstrating  Car  of  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry 43 

Example  of  a  Farmers'  Bulletin 44 

Forest  Rangers  Fighting  a  Fire  in  the  National  For- 
ests        47 

Marking  Timber  for  a  Sale  under  Government  Regu- 
lation     47 

Crops  Drowned  Out  for  Lack  of  Drainage    ...      52 

Good  Crops  on  the  Same  Land  After  Tile  Drainage 
According  to  Instruction  of  Office  Public  Roads  and 
Rural  Engineering 52 

Notice  Issued  by  the  Department  of  Labor  Concern- 
ing Employment  of  Farm  Hands 61 

xi 


xii        List  of  Illustrations  and  Diagrams 


PAGE 


Sketch  Map  Indicating  Shipments  of  Fresh  Toma- 
toes       66-67 

Diagram  Issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Markets    ...      68 

Cotton  Classification  Laboratory,  Final  Inspection  of 
Cotton  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C.        ...      75 

A  Complete  Set  of  the  Official  Cotton  Standards  of  the 
United  States  for  American  White  Cotton  ...      75 

Shipping  Day  of  Live  Stock  Shipping  Association. 
Farmers  Delivering  and  Unloading  Stock   ...      78 

Engineer  Engaged  in  Water  Resources  Measurements 
for  the  Geological  Survey 78 

Diagram  Showing  Rates  of  Interest  in  Various  States      93 

Chart  Showing  How  Malaria  Was  Reduced  in  1916  .    109 

Operating  on  Trachoma  Patients  at  a  Trachoma 
Clinic.    U.  S.  Public  Health  Service    .      .      .      .110 

These  two  Men  Led  each  other  to  the  Hospital  of  the 
Public  Health  Service  and  Went  Home  Cured      .     110 

Certificate  Given  to  Members  of  Reading  Circles      .     113 

A  Demonstration  in  Applying  Poisoned  Bran  in 
Grass-hopper  Fight 127 

The  County  Agent  Conducts  Parties  of  Farmers  on 
''Excursions"  to  Farms  of  Successful  Men  whose 
Good  Work  Makes  the  best  ' '  Demonstration  "  .       .     127 

A  Canning  Club  taking  Lessons  in  Canning      .       .     135 

A  "Mother-Daughter"  Canning  Team.  (See  "Mother- 
Daughter"  Canning  Clubs.) 135 

A  Corn  Club  Boy  who  Made  a  Record  of  228  Bushels 
of  Corn  to  the  Acre 141 

Two  Hogs.  Larger  Hog  Raised  by  Boy  under  the 
Direction  of  County  Agent  Weighed  380  lbs.  at  9 
Months.    Smaller  One  Raised  by  His  Father  .       .     141 

Roosevelt  Dam,  Arizona.  Principal  Engineering  Fea- 
ture of  the  Salt  River  Valley  where  200,000  Acres 
Have  Been  Reclaimed  Through  the  Reclamation 
Service 161 


List  of  Illustrations  and  Diagrams         xiii 

PAGE 

A  Group  of  Small  Farms  Reclaimed  from  Desert  by 
the  Reclamation  Service 161 

Samples  of  European  Hardware  Sold  in  South  Amer- 
ica Gathered  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domes- 
tic Commerce 176 

Standardizing  Precision  Weights  at  the  Laboratory 
of  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  The  Observer  is  Using 
a  Telescope  to  Read  the  Position  of  the  Balance 
Arms 196 

Picture  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  Showing  Colored 
Youths  Learning  to  Master  Germs  that  Menace  the 
Life  of  their  Race 313 

Two  Colored  Children  Receiving  Instruction  in  the 
Household  Arts 313 

A  typical  Negro  House 315 

What  a  Coat  of  Paint  under  the  Direction  of  the 
Demonstration  Agent  Will  Do 315 

Fishing  Commission  Car  for  the  Transporting  of  Fish  234 
Nevada  Falls.    Yosemite  National  Park,    One  of  the 

Loftiest  Waterfalls  in  the  World 250 

Bureau  of  Mines  Rescue  Crew.    Stretcher  Drill  .       .  282 

Bureau  of  Mines  Rescue  Corps  Entering  Mine  Fol- 
lowing Disaster 282 

Government    Meat    Inspector    Applying    Inspection 

Mark  to  Inspected  and  Passed  Hog  Carcasses  .       .     334 
Raw  Oyster  Inspection 334 


INTRODUCTION 

To-day,  perhaps  more  than  at  any  other  time  in 
our  national  existence,  every  American  citizen  is 
keenly  alert  as  to  the  immediate  relation  of  the  Gov- 
ernment to  the  people.  Years  of  study,  of  scientific 
application,  of  experiment  on  the  part  of  the  Govern- 
ment have  resulted  in  numerous  activities  for  the 
well-being  of  American  citizens.  The  actual  opera- 
tion and  the  practical  extent  of  these  activities  is  not 
generally  known.  To  make  them  widely  known  is  to 
further  very  materially  that  deep  sense  of  loyalty 
which  is  the  very  basis  of  nationality.  Miss  Franc's 
book  is  eminently  suitable  to  be  used  to  introduce 
the  American  Government,  as  it  operates  to-day,  to 
every  man,  woman  and  child  within  its  protection. 
The  book  is  not  a  stereotyped  manual  of  civics.  In 
adopting  the  arrangement  of  her  material  Miss 
Franc  has  succeeded  in  producing  a  sense  of  rela- 
tionship of  the  Government  to  the  citizenship,  re- 
gardless of  age,  sex  or  color,  which  is  usually  lack- 
ing in  books  on  civics,  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
first  book  of  its  kind  on  this  vital  subject. 

At  this  especial  time  I  can  see  two,  at  least,  very 
important  reasons  for  the  publication  of  a  book  of 
the  nature  of  Miss  Franc's.  Unknown  to  the  Ameri- 
can public  at  large  there  is  developing  under  the 
United  States  Government  a  remarkable  network  of 
activities  functioning  as  economic  utilities.    The  vast 

XV 


xvi  Introduction 

attempt,  to  mention  only  one  instance,  of  the  agri- 
cultural extension  work  projected  by  the  Govern- 
ment is  actually  known  to  but  few.  To  bring  home 
to  every  American  man,  woman  and  child,  a  knowl- 
edge of  what  the  Government  is  doing  for  the  people 
in  a  directly  practical  way,  would  in  itself  be  ample 
justification  of  such  a  volume  as  Miss  Franc  has 
written. 

Of  our  Allies,  especially  France  will  make  efforts, 
once  peace  is  restored,  to  profit  by  America's  experi- 
ence in  social  and  agrarian  economics  as  fostered 
by  the  Government.  There  is  of  course  a  very  large 
official  literature  from  which  Government  activities 
can  be  studied.  It  has  remained,  however,  for  Miss 
Franc  to  present  these  activities  in  a  concise,  attrac- 
tive and  intelligent  form,  so  that  foreigners  and 
Americans  alike  may  now  learn  what  the  United 
States  Government  is  doing  for  the  people. 

There  undoubtedly  is  in  the  public  mind  at  the 
present  time  the  first  stirring  of  a  conviction  that  if 
there  are  faults  in  our  educational  system,  one  of 
them  is  the  alienation  of  citizenship  from  the  cur- 
riculum of  our  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 
The  material  for  the  teaching  of  citizenship  has  left 
much  to  be  wished  for. 

Miss  Franc's  "Use  Your  Government"  is  an  ad- 
mirable contribution  to  the  best  of  the  literature  at 
the  disposal  of  the  American  teacher  of  civics. 

Adelaide  E.  Hasse, 
Chief  of  Economics  Division, 
New  York  Public  Library. 


PART  I 
THE  FARMER 


CHAPTER  I.— PLANTING  AND  GROWING  OF 

CROPS 

The  Government  is  doing  more  for  the  farmer 
than  any  other  part  of  the  population  and  is  occu- 
pied with  a  study  of  agriculture  in  all  its  phases 
from  the  seed  to  the  consumer. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  had  its  origin  in 
the  far-sighted  wisdom  of  Washington,  who  as  Pres- 
ident suggested  the  organization  of  a  branch  of  the 
National  Government  to  care  for  the  interests  of 
farmers.  In  order  to  bring  the  matter  of  a  Board  of 
Agriculture  before  the  public,  Washington  in  his  last 
message  to  Congress  on  December  the  7th,  1796, 
stated : 

''In  proportion  as  nations  advance  in  popula- 
tion the  cultivation  of  the  soil  becomes  more  and 
more  an  object  of  public  patronage.  Institu- 
tions grow  up  supported  by  the  public  purse. 
.  .  .  Among  the  means  which  have  been  em- 
ployed to  this  end  none  have  been  attended 
with  greater  success  than  the  establishment  of 
boards  composed  of  public  characters  charged 
with  collecting  and  diffusing  information,  and 
enabled  by  premiums  and  small  pecuniary  aid  to 
encourage  and  assist  a  spirit  of  discovery  and 
improvement.     This  species   of  establishment 

3 


4  Use  Your  Government 

contributes  doubly  to  tbe  increase  of  improve- 
ments by  stimulating  to  enterprize  and  experi- 
ment and  by  drawing  to  a  common  center  the 
results  everywhere  of  individual  skill  and  ob- 
servation and  spreading  them  thence  over  the 
whole  nation. ' ' 

In  1839  took  place  the  first  appropriation  by  Con- 
gress of  $1,000  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  dis- 
tributing seeds,  prosecuting  agricultural  investiga- 
tions and  procuring  agricultural  statistics.  The 
money  was  taken  from  the  Patent  Office  fund  and  the 
work  was  to  be  done  under  the  Commissioner,  at  that 
time  an  official  of  the  Department  of  State. 

To-day  the  appropriation  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  over  $7,000,000  a  year,  and  its  staff 
numbers  about  20,000,  and  it  is  estimated  that  at  least 
one  farm  out  of  every  twenty  is  working  in  some  way 
with  the  Department,  thus  becoming  a  center  of  ad- 
vanced agricultural  information  for  its  community. 

Scientific  help  is  brought  to  the  farmer  in  the 
planting  of  his  crops  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  In- 
Bureau  of  dustry  which  ascertains  what  important 
Plant  crop  plants  might  be  produced  in  par- 

Industry,  ticular  regions  of  the  country,  searches 
the  world  for  grains,  fruits,  vegetables,  grasses  and 
legumes,  that  might  be  useful,  secures  new  varieties 
of  plants,  crops  and  vegetables  by  breeding,  and 
controls  destructive  diseases  and  tests  seeds. 

The  knowledge  obtained  for  the  farmer  is  spread 


Planting  and  Growing  of  Crops  5 

in  part  through  the  demonstration  agents  of  the 
States  Relation  Service  (see  page  125),  and  through 
the  Farmers  co-operating  with  the  department  (see 
page  4),  and  by  the  staff  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry  itself. 

The  introduction  of  new  crop  plants  and  fruits 
was  established  even  before  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture was  a  separate  institution. 

This  field  of  study  has  always  been  actively  pur- 
sued by  the  Department,  and  it  was  the  first  system- 
atic attempt  by  any  Government  to  supply  its  bona 
fide  plant  experimenters  on  an  extensive  scale  with 
the  material  out  of  which  new  plant  industries  can 
be  built. 

For  instance,  one  of  the  earliest  explorations 
undertaken  in  this  field  was  for  the  purpose  of  aid- 
ing the  rice  growers  in  the  southern  states.  During 
the  year  1898,  and  again  in  1901,  an  explorer  was 
sent  to  Japan,  China  and  India  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  types  of  rice  better  adapted  to  the  condi- 
tion of  southern  Louisiana,  and  Texas,  and  more 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  market  especially  as  re- 
gards milling  qualities. 

Another  explorer  about  that  time  was  sent  to  Rus- 
sia for  the  purpose  of  securing  help  in  the  matter  of 
grains  adapted  to  the  northwestern  semi-arid  re- 
gions. A  large  extent  of  territory  in  this  section 
was  yielding  no  valuable  crop  returns.  As  the  re- 
sult of  this  first  exploration  work  in  1898  followed 


6  Use  Your  Government 

by  a  second  trip  in  1900,  large  quantities  of  drought 
resistant  Durham  wheat,  and  other  varieties  of 
wheats,  oats  and  special  cereals  were  brought  in. 

The  whole  alfalfa  question  in  the  United  States 
has  been  put  on  a  new  basis  by  the  introduction  of 
the  Turkestan,  Siberian,  Arabian  and  Peruvian  al- 
falfas, and  the  development  of  the  hardy  hybrid 
strains  which  grow  in  the  southwest  throughout  the 
winter. 

The  seedless  grapes  of  Italy  and  Greece  were 
brought  into  the  raisin  industries  of  the  Pacific 
coast. 

The  date  palm  has  long  ago  ceased  to  be  a  curi- 
osity in  the  desert  regions  of  the  southwest,  and  its 
cultivation  has  become  an  important  industry. 

The  Chinese  persimmon  varieties  have  proved 
quite  as  well  adapted  to  conditions  in  America  as 
the  Japanese  variety,  and  are  showing  certain  ad- 
vantages over  them.  They  have  added  a  distinct 
new  type  of  fruit  to  our  fruit  culture. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  types  from  abroad  in- 
troduced through  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry. 

The  work  now  as  formerly  consists  in  locating  in 
different  parts  of  the  world  promising  new  crop 
plants,  bringing  them  to  this  country  and  testing 
them  in  regions  where  they  may  be  expected  to  be 
useful,  as  adjuncts  to  existing  agriculture,  or  to  sup- 
plant or  supplement  existing  crops. 


Planting  and  Growing  of  Crops  7 

New  seeds  and  plants  from  various  parts  of  the 
world  are  brought  in  each  year,  and  persons  inter- 
ested in  the  subject  have  only  to  write  to  the  Depart- 
ment for  information. 

The  work  is  done  through  extensive  correspond- 
ence and  special  shipping  arrangements  with  foreign 
institutions  and  individuals  and  diplomatic  and  con- 
sular officials  abroad  on  the  one  hand,  and  Federal 
and  State  experiment  station  officials,  private  exper- 
imenters and  park  superintendents  on  the  other. 
This  international  exchange  is  kept  up,  and  the 
growing  demand  supplied  for  new  and  rare  seeds 
and  plants  for  the  development  of  new  industries  in 
this  country. 

All  importations  are  opened  and  inspected  by  the 
Federal  Horticultural  Board  (see  page  12). 

The  various  introductions  are  given  distinctive 
numbers  and  all  information  available  referring  to 
the  introduction  is  recorded  on  a  card  bearing  this 
number  and  filed.  A  bulletin  of  foreign  plant  in- 
troductions is  sent  out  monthly  to  the  department 
co-operators,  giving  a  list  of  the  special  introduc- 
tions received. 

The  Bureau  test  seeds  for  firms  or  individuals 
and  reports  on  the  results  of  such  tests  for  mechan- 
ical purity  or  vitality.  Identification  of  weed  seeds 
are  also  made,  as  well  as  studies  concerning  the 
quality  of  commercial  seeds;  the  Bureau  publishes 


8  Use  Your  Government 

information  as  to  the  extent  and  sale  of  adulterated 
or  misbranded  foreign  seed  plants. 

Great  progress  has  been  made  in  the  matter  of 
securing  good  seed  for  the  farmer.  This  work  con- 
tinued from  year  to  year  has  resulted  in  a  much  bet- 
ter understanding  of  the  nature  and  value  of  pure 
seeds,  and  has  added  much  to  the  building  up  of 
agriculture. 

The  work  of  the  laboratory  of  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  and  that  of  the  state  experiment 
stations,  awakened  an  interest  in  better  seeds  on  the 
part  of  the  farmers.  This  is  shown  by  the  steady 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  high  grade  seeds  on 
the  market  each  year. 

This  division  is  responsible  for  the  enforcement 
of  the  Seed  Importation  Act  which  prevents  un- 
scrupulous seed  dealers  from  bringing  into  the 
United  States  low  grade  seeds  which  do  not  find  a 
sale  in  foreign  countries  but  which  have  previously 
been  imported  into  the  United  States  in  considera- 
ble quantities. 

It  also  co-operates  with  several  states  in  the  en- 
forcement of  Pure  Seed  laws,  working  with  seed 
men  to  induce  them  to  label  their  seeds  accurately 
so  as  to  get  a  uniform  standard  of  seeds. 

The  question  of  ''seeds"  from  an  educational 
angle  is  also  taken  up,  with  regard  to  the  different 
lengths  of  time  seeds  should  be  kept,  conditions  of 
testing,  etc. 


Planting  and  Growing  of  Crops  9 

The  Bureau  also  handles  the  mechanical  and  rou- 
tine pages  of  the  Congressional  Seed  Distribution, 
there  being  distributed  each  year,  by  each  Congress- 
man, 20,000  or  more  packages  of  seed  to  farmers 
and  others  of  his  constituents. 

The  diseases  of  cereals,  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
investigated  whenever  these  seem  of  importance  to 
the  country  at  large.  Diseases  known  to  the  Bureau 
are  under  constant  examination  in  order  that  means 
may  be  suggested  for  checking  them.  New  diseases 
are  examined  and  methods  for  their  control  found. 
For  fruits,  as  a  rule,  spraying  methods  meet  the 
needs  of  the  industry,  and  can  be  developed  quickly. 
For  general  farm  crops,  cereals,  etc.,  the  control  of 
diseases  will  depend  on  either  developing  systems  of 
seed  selection  or  rotation. 

Work  on  the  diseases  of  vegetables  includes  field, 
and  also  storage  conditions,  and  investigations,  both 
scientific  and  practical,  are  undertaken  with  these. 

The  farmer  is  encouraged  to  write  to  the  Bureau, 
giving  a  description  of  the  conditions  of  disease  he 
is  attempting  to  cure,  and  if  feasible,  he  is  asked  to 
send  in  specimens  of  diseased  plants  or  vegetables. 
Should  his  samples  show  signs  of  a  disease  already 
known  to  the  Bureau  he  will  be  given  the  advice  at 
hand,  and  his  county  agent  (see  page  125)  would  be 
instructed  to  communicate  with  him;  if,  however,  it 
seems  to  be  a  question  of  a  new  disease,  or  a  prob- 
lem not  yet  worked  out  the  Bureau  makes  a  thor- 


10  Use  Your  Government 

ough  investigation.  Should  it  prove  a  problem 
likely  to  be  of  universal  interest  or  concern  an  in- 
vestigation already  in  hand,  the  farmer  is  told  how 
far  the  Bureau  has  progressed  and  he  is  given  the 
best  general  advice  to  be  had  on  the  subject. 

Experiments  both  highly  technical  and  practical 
are  undertaken  with  regard  to  the  breeding  of 
plants,  cereals,  fruits  and  vegetables,  in  order  to 
improve  their  varieties  both  in  productiveness  and 
quality,  and  so  that  there  may  be  developed  types 
resistant  to  plant  diseases. 

After  new  types  have  been  developed  and  their 
success  ascertained,  they  are  brought  into  general 
use  through  the  large  number  of  volunteers  co-oper- 
ating with  the  department,  who  assist  the  Bureau 
in  testing  out  the  various  new  types  developed, 
through  the  demonstration  agents  (see  page  125), 
and  by  giving  out  direct  information  to  farmers 
known  to  be  specially  interested  in  the  subject. 

Experiments  have  been  made  with  regard  to  the 
acclimatization  of  crops  and  methods  of  culture.  It 
was  often  found  that  even  in  the  case  of  good  va- 
rieties of  crops  moved  from  one  place  to  another  sud- 
denly, these  would  break  up  into  many  varieties  and 
deteriorate.  A  special  line  of  work  was  therefore 
established,  which  concerned  the  transporting  of 
crops  from  one  region  to  another. 

After  experiments  are  concluded  every  effort  is 


Planting  and  Growing  of  Crops  11 

made  with  the  aid  of  these  co-operators  to  get  the 
work  over  to  the  public  at  large. 

Experiments  are  made  with  all  crops  concerning 
their  general  use  through  improvement  in  cultiva- 
tion and  the  utilization  as  well  as  the  different  rota- 
tions in  crops. 

The  Bureau  has  been  devoting  special  attention  to 
cotton  experiments  so  as  to  improve  the  types  at 
present  prevalent  in  the  country. 

The  Bureau  carries  on  highly  technical  experi- 
ments in  plant  nutrition  in.  order  to  study  the 
growth,  development  and  composition  of  plants  as 
affected  by  nutrition. 

Highly  technical  experiments  are  also  carried  on 
with  regard  to  soil,  fertilizers,  etc. 
Bureau  of         The  chief  work  regarding  soil,  how- 
Soils,  ever,  is  carried  on  by  the  Bureau  of 
Soils,  whose  work  is  of  vast  importance. 

The  work  of  this  Bureau  may  be  divided  into  soil 
survey,  fertilizer  investigation,  and  laboratory  in- 
vestigations. 

The  soil  survey  consists  in  making  a  detailed 
study  of  agricultural  conditions  and  possibilities  of 
each  state,  county  by  county,  mapping  the  types  of 
soils,  streams,  roads,  transportation  facilities  and 
photographic  features,  indicating  adaption  to  crops 
and  fertilizer  acquirements  and  mechanical  treat- 
ment. These  maps  are  published  for  general  dis- 
tribution, and  are  of  great  value  to  the  farmer,  pros- 


12  Use  Your  Government 

pective  settler  and  business  organizations,  and  con- 
stitute the  fundamental  basis  for  scientific  and  prac- 
tical investigations. 

The  fertilizer  investigations  consist  in  the  con- 
ducting of  a  survey  of  the  fertilizer  resources  and 
in  investigating  methods  and  materials  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  fertilizers  with  a  view  to  cheapening 
processes  and  to  stimulating  production.  New 
sources  of  supply  are  being  pointed  out,  and  the 
Bureau  is  endeavoring  to  save  the  present  waste  of 
fertilizer  materials  taking  place  in  other  industries, 
as  for  instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  cement  and 
coke  and  in  blast  furnaces. 

The  manufacture  of  potash  from  the  vast  Pacific 
coast  bids  fair  to  replace  that  heretofore  imported 
from  Germany,  and  the  extraction  of  nitrates  from 
the  air  is  a  prominent  feature  of  this  work. 

The  laboratories  of  the  Bureau  co-operate  in  all 
lines  of  investigation  solving  scientific  and  technical 
problems  relating  to  soil  and  fertilizer  investiga- 
tions. 

The  province  of  the  Federal  Horticultural  Board 
created  under  authority  conferred  by  the  Plant 
Federal  Quarantine  Act  of  August  20th,  1912,  is 
Horticul-  to  guard  against  the  introduction  of  new 
tural  Board,  injurious  plant  diseases  and  insect  pests 
and  to  prevent  the  further  spread  of  plant  diseases 
and  insect  pests  now  occurring  in  this  country.  The 
work  is  done  in  co-operation  with  state  inspectors, 


Planting  and  Growing  of  Crops  13 

customs  officials,  postmasters  and  American  consuls 
as  well  as  inspectors  in  foreign  countries. 

The  control  of  plant  and  plant  products  (the  entry 
of  which  is  regulated)  is  effected  by  means  of  per- 
mits and,  in  the  case  of  nursery  stock,  by  providing 
foreign  inspection  of  such  stock,  by  securing  from 
importers  and  customs  oflficials  reports  of  arrival 
and  proposed  distribution,  and  by  the  transmitting 
of  such  reports  to  state  inspectors  who  again  inspect 
the  stock  at  destination.  The  Board  also  keeps  rec- 
ords of  importations,  and  takes  steps  to  maintain 
full  compliance  with  the  regulations  on  the  part  of 
the  inspectors  in  foreign  countries  as  to  proper  cer- 
tification and  marking.  In  addition  to  nursery 
stock,  the  entry  of  Irish  potatoes,  alligator  pears, 
cotton,  corn,  cotton-seed  products  and  citrus  fruits 
has  also  been  regulated.  All  of  these  plant  products 
are  subject  to  inspection  at  port  of  entry  by  in- 
spectors of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  the 
case  of  cotton  all  importations  are  disinfected  on 
arrival  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  under  the  super- 
vision of  inspectors  of  this  department  and  the 
ports  of  entry  are  limited  to  northern  cities. 

One  of  the  most  important  projects  of  the  Board 
at  the  present  time  is  the  work  being  done  to  prevent 
the  entry  of  the  pink  boll-worm,  one  of  the  most 
injurious  cotton  pests  known.  This  insect  orig- 
inated in  India,  was  carried  to  Egypt  some  eight  or 
ten  years  ago,  where  it  reduced  the  cotton  crop  at 


14  Use  Your  Government 

least  twenty  per  cent.,  has  almost  destroyed  the  cot- 
ton crop  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  has  recently 
become  established  in  Brazil  and  Mexico.  This  in- 
sect is  carried  from  one  country  to  another  in  the 
seed  and  this  pest  was  responsible  for  the  quaran- 
tine against  cotton-seed  from  all  foreign  countries 
and  localities  which  became  effective  July  1,  1913. 
To  prevent  the  possible  introduction  of  the  pink  boll- 
worm  from  Mexico  into  the  cotton-growing  districts 
of  the  United  States,  Congress  at  its  last  session 
voted  a  sum  of  $250,000.  It  is  proposed  to  establish 
in  co-operation  with  the  State  of  Texas  a  cotton-free 
zone  in  Texas  along  the  Mexican  Border  approxi- 
mately 50  miles  in  width.  All  railway  cars  and  other 
vehicles  and  freight  of  all  kinds  for  Mexico  offered 
for  entry  at  the  border  ports  are  inspected,  and  if 
found  necessary  cleaned  and  disinfected  before 
entry  is  permitted. 


CHAPTER  IL— WEATHER  REPORTS 

The  Weather  Bureau  makes  daily  forecasts  and 
weather  maps  for  the  benefit  of  the  pubhc.  These 
Weather  forecasts  are  based  upon  simultaneous 
Bureau.  observation  of  local  weather  conditions 
taken  daily  at  8 :00  a.  m.  and  8 :00  p.  m.,  75th  me- 
ridian time,  at  about  200  regular  observing  stations 
scattered  throughout  the  United  States  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  upon  similar  reports  received 
daily  from  various  points  in  other  parts  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  Each  of  the  Weather  Bu- 
reau Stations  is  operated  by  one  or  more  trained 
observers,  and  is  equipped  with  all  the  scientific  de- 
vices which  make  a  continuous  automatic  record  of 
the  local  weather  conditions  and  changes. 

The  results  of  the  twice  daily  observations  are  im- 
mediately telegraphed  to  the  central  office  at  Wash- 
ington and  to  other  forecast  centers  where  they  are 
charted  for  study  and  interpretation  by  experts 
trained  to  forecast  the  weather  conditions  that  may 
be  expected  to  prevail  during  the  following  36  to  48 
hours. 

A  complete  telegraphic  report  includes  the  follow- 
ing data : 

15 


16  Use  Your  Government 

Temperature,  pressure  reduced  to  sea  level,  pre- 
cipitation, direction  of  winds,  state  of  weather,  cur- 
rent wind  philosophy,  clouds,  and  maximum  or  min- 
imum temperature  since  last  observation. 

From  these  data  the  forecaster  by  comparison 
with  preceding  reports  is  able  to  trace  the  paths  of 
storm  areas  from  the  time  of  their  appearance  to  the 
moment  of  observation  and  approximately  deter- 
mine and  forecast  their  subsequent  forces,  and  at- 
tendant weather  conditions. 

Weather  services  similar  to  that  of  the  United 
States  are  maintained  by  the  Canadian  and  Mexican 
Governments,  and  by  a  system  of  interchange  daily 
reports  are  received  from  a  number  of  stations  in 
these  countries.  Daily  observations  are  also  re- 
ceived from  the  Azores,  Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands, 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Portugal,  Eu- 
ropean and  Asiatic  Russia,  China,  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, Hawaii,  and  Alaska.  The  field  represented  by 
the  daily  reports,  therefore,  extends  practically  over 
the  entire  Northern  Hemisphere. 

Within  two  hours  after  the  morning  observations 
have  been  taken  the  forecasts  are  telegraphed  from 
the  forecasts  centers  to  about  1,600  principal  dis- 
tributing points.  They  are  further  sent  out  by  tele- 
graph, telephone,  wireless  telegraphy,  and  mail. 
The  forecasts  reach  nearly  90,000  addresses  daily 
by  the  mail,  the  greater  part  being  delivered  early 
in  the  day  and  none  later  than  6 :00  p.  m.,  of  the  day 


^  ^' 


Heaters  ia  operation  after  a  warning  from  the  Weather  Bureau. 


Ci-op  reporters  waiting  to  telegraph.     (See  page  28.) 


Weather  Reports  17 

of  issue,  and  are  available  to  more  than  5,500,000 
telephone  subscribers  within  an  hour  of  the  time  of 
issue. 

The  rural  free  mail  delivery  system  and  rural 
telephone  lines  are  also  being  utilized  to  bring  with- 
in the  benefits  of  this  system  a  large  number  of 
farming  conununities. 

The  weather  map  is  mailed  immediately  after  the 
morning  forecast  is  telegraphed.  On  this  map 
the  chief  features  of  current  weather  conditions 
throughout  the  country  are  graphically  repre- 
sented. 

This  work  of  the  Bureau  is  divided  into  44  local 
sections,  each  section  as  a  rule  covering  a  single 
State  and  having  for  its  center  a  regular  observing 
station. 

These  centers  each  month  collect  temperature  and 
precipitation  observations  for  more  than  4,500  co- 
operative and  other  stations,  and  publish  a  month- 
ly and  annual  summary,  giving  a  large  amount 
of  climatological  data  for  each  month  and  the 
year. 

During  the  crop  growing  season,  April  to  Sep- 
tember, each  section  center  also  receives  weekly  re- 
ports of  weather  and  crop  conditions  from  numer- 
ous correspondents. 

During  the  crop  growing  season  the  central  office 
in  Washington  also  issues  a  National  Weather  and 
Crop   Bulletin  containing  a  general  summary   of 


18  Use  Your  Government 

weather  and  crop  conditions  for  the  entire  country 
as  well  as  individual  summaries  for  the  various 
States.  It  also  contains  a  series  of  charts  and  dia- 
grams, showing  graphically  the  actual  and  normal 
condition  of  precipitation  and  temperature  for  the 
current  week,  and  for  the  preceding  weeks  of  the 
season  in  the  principal  crop  growing  areas.  The 
diagrams  also  contain  data  showing  the  condition  of 
the  principal  crops  in  those  areas  for  months  and 
months  as  furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Crops  Esti- 
mates. 

There  is  issued  at  the  Central  Office  every  Tues- 
day during  the  winter  season  a  publication  entitled 
''Snow  and  Ice  Bulletin,"  which  shows  the  area 
covered  by  snow,  the  depth  of  snow,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  ice  in  rivers,  etc.,  as  indicated  by  a  large 
number  of  reports  of  observations  made  on  the 
afternoon  of  the  day  preceding  the  issue  of  the  bul- 
letins. This  publication  is  of  special  value  to  those 
interested  in  the  winter  wheat  crop,  the  ice  dealers, 
and  to  the  manufacturers  of  rubber  goods  and  other 
articles  the  sale  of  which  is  largely  affected  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  snow  and  ice. 

During  the  growing  season  in  the  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  sugar,  rice,  corn  and  cattle  producing  sec- 
tions, designated  centers  receive  telegraphic  re- 
ports of  precipitation  and  daily  extremes  of  tem- 
perature from  the  sub-stations  in  the  various 
sections  for  publication  in  bulletin  form,  each  lo- 


Weather  Reports  19 

oal  center  receiving  condensed  reports  from  all 
others. 

Several  hundred  stations  are  maintained  in  the 
elevated  regions  of  Washington,  Oregon,  California, 
Idaho,  Utah,  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  South 
Dakota,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  precis©  measureiments  of  the  depth  of 
water  and  content  of  snow  which  falls  in  the  elevated 
portions  of  those  States.  Such  measurements  are 
useful  in  determining  approximately  the  amount  of 
water  available  for  irrigation  purposes  on  the  adja- 
cent lowlands. 

In  Utah  special  observation  work  has  been  con- 
centrated in  one  or  more  small  watersheds,  where  a 
great  number  of  measurements  are  made,  and  even- 
tually the  water  available  for  irrigation  is  deter- 
mined with  considerable  accuracy. 

The  warnings  of  those  sudden  and  destructive 
temperature  changes  known  as  cold  waves  are  of 
great  importance.  These  warnings,  which  are  is- 
sued from  24  to  36  hours  in  advance,  are  dissem- 
inated throughout  the  threatened  regions  by  means 
of  flags  displayed  at  the  regular  weather  bureau 
stations  by  telegraph,  telephone,  and  mail  service  to 
all  parts  receiving  the  daily  forecast  and  to  a  large 
number  of  special  addresses  in  addition.  The  warn- 
ings issued  for  a  single  cold  wave  of  exceptional 
severity  and  extent  resulted  in  saving  over 
$3,500,000,  through  the  protection  of  property  from 


20  Use  Your  Government 

injury  or  destruction.     (For  Flood  Warning  see 
page  205.) 
The  Bureau  in  a  pamphlet  on  the  subject  states 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AORICILTURE.  WEATHEI^  BUREAU. 

Telegraphic  Reports  Received  at  Washingtoa  D.  C 191 

ttompblQ.  tpan. .  Ilarob  66,  1913. 
Otserver. 

VasblngtOQ,  D.C 

The  river  at  Ueophle  wl)l  paea  flood  atage  tty  Frlda;      Bo 

foreoast  of  flood  height  in  tbla  dlatrlct  posaible  at  present. 

atages  ezoeedloe  forty  feet  at  Memphis  and  ezoeedlng  f 1ft;  feat 

at  lielQsa  are  oertalo.  Putlle  warned  to  prep^e  ;for  eevera  flood, 

Eoeiy. 

HeDji>blB  lean.,  Uaiah  £7^19X3. 

Cbaerver, 

Qaahiogtoa.  Ii.O. 

Ezpeot  flood  stage  Uemphla  Saturday  and  40.0  feet  In  «SXt 

five  or  Six  days.  A  etage  approzicoatlng  4S.0  teat  son  eeema 

posaitile. 


Emery. 
o  -— -"— 


lianpbla,  lena. .  April  Z,_  191^. 
OhserTsr. 

VaBhlQgtoo.  S.C. 

Helena  43.6;  Dew  Madrid  41.6;  no*  ezpeot  Uemphla  to  ezoeed 

46. Q  and  46.0  la  pOBSible  provided  leveea  hold.  Have  alviaed  la» 

teresta  to  prepare  for  46.0  Uemphla  anl  5&.ii  Helena. 

Emery. 

(A  stage  6f  46.5  feet  Was  reached  at  MenrphJa  on  April  18) 


SPECIMEN   OF  FLOOD  WARNING  ISSUED  BY  THE  WEATHER 
BUREAU,    DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICULTURE 

that  its  data  is  used  in  the  Agricultural  districts  as 
follows : 

The  daily  maps  and  bulletins  and  the  general 
bulletin  report  containing  statistical  data  are  used 
by  the  retailer  and  small  farmer. 


Weather  Reports  21 

In  the  agricultural  districts  the  frost  and  cold 
wave  warnings  are  of  great  value  to  the  trucker  and 
fruit  grower,  especially  in  the  spring  when  the  ten- 
der vegetables  are  protected  by  covering  with  paper, 
cloth,  or  soil,  and  fruit  is  safeguarded  by  smudging, 
irrigation,  or  other  methods  designed  to  maintain 
the  temperature  above  the  danger  point.  In  the  fall 
these  warnings  are  utilized  in  the  cranberry  regions 
by  flooding  the  bogs  until  after  the  cold  weather  has 
passed  or  the  danger  of  frost  is  over. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  warnings  of  the  Weather 
Bureau  regulate  the  safety  of  all  crops  for  the 
farmer. 

In  the  raisin-growing  districts  of  California  rain 
forecasts  are  of  great  value.  The  raisin  crop  while 
drying  is  extremely  susceptible  to  injury  from  rain, 
and  the  warnings  enable  the  producers  to  protect 
the  fruit  by  stacking  and  covering  the  trays.  The 
accuracy  of  the  rain  forecasts  for  this  region  and 
the  system  for  their  distribution  have  been  so  com- 
plete that  practically  no  loss  from  this  cause  has  oc- 
curred for  years.  Rain  forecasts  are  also  utilized  in 
the  large  fruit-growing  districts  to  enable  picking  in 
advance  of  rains,  so  that  the  fruit  can  be  shipped 
dry. 

The  warnings  of  frost  and  freezing  weather  are 
of  immense  value,  particularly  to  the  fruit,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cranberry,  and  market  gardening  interests. 
The  early  truck  raising  industry,  so  extensively  car- 


22  Use  Ycmr  Government 

ried  on  in  the  regions  bordering  on  the  Gulf  and 
south  Atlantic  coasts  and  in  Florida,  and  which  has 
increased  so  greatly  in  recent  years,  is  largely  de- 
pendent for  its  success  on  the  cooperation  of  the 
Weather  Bureau  in  this  particular,  and  the  growers 
of  oranges  and  other  fruits  in  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia have  received  great  benefit.  The  value  of  the 
orange  bloom,  vegetables,  and  strawberries  pro- 
tected and  saved  on  a  single  night  in  a  limited  dis- 
trict in  Florida,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
warnings  of  freezing  weather  sent  out  by  the  bu- 
reau, was  reported  at  over  $100,000. 

In  the  citrus  fruit  districts  of  California  it  is  re- 
ported that  fruit  to  the  value  of  $14,000,000  was 
saved  by  taking  advantage  of  warnings  issued  by 
the  bureau  during  one  cold  wave. 

The  deciduous  fruit  districts  of  Washington,  Ore- 
gon, Idaho,  Utah,  Colorado,  and  throughout  the 
East,  rely  upon  the  warnings  of  the  bureau  to  guide 
them  in  smudging  and  heating  their  orchards  on  the 
occurrence  of  frost  or  freezing  weather  during  the 
blossoming  period. 

The  warnings  of  the  Bureau  are  also  of  great 
importance  on  the  Western  ranches  and  plains 
where  the  stock  is  hurried  from  the  ranges  to  shelter 
upon  notice  of  blizzards  or  heavy  snows. 

Special  uses  of  storm  warnings  are  found  in  the 
measure  adopted  to  protect  property  and  crops  sub- 
ject  to   inundation   from   high   tides   or   back  wa- 


Weather  Reports  23 

ters  blown  up  by  the  wind.  For  instance,  the  rice 
planters  before  a  predicted  storm  flood  their  crops 
to  prevent  the  straw  from  being  broken  by  the 
wind. 


CHAPTER  III.— CROP  ESTIMATES  AND  CEN- 
SUS OF  AGRICULTURE 

Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  sends 

Crop  out  monthly  reports  as  the  crops  pro- 

Beginning  with  the  planting  data  is  gathered  and 
reports  made  as  to  the  condition  and  acreage  of  each 
of  the  principal  agricultural  products,  such  as  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  potatoes,  hay,  cotton,  to- 
bacco and  rice,  etc.  Such  reports  are  expressed  in 
percentages,  100  representing  normal  conditions. 
With  these  statements  are  given  the  averages  of 
similar  reports  at  corresponding  dates  in  previous 
years  (usually  ten  year  averages).  By  such  com- 
parison the  condition  of  crops  in  comparison  with 
the  average  conditions  is  readily  obtained.  At  har- 
vest time  the  yields  per  acre  are  ascertained,  which 
being  multiplied  by  the  acreage  figures  already  as- 
certained give  the  production. 

The  reports  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Esti- 
mates during  the  year  include  the  data  relating  to 
acreages,  conditions,  yields,  supplies,  qualities,  and 
value  of  farm  crops,  numbers  by  classes,  condition, 
and  values  of  farm  animals,  etc. 

24 


Crop  Estimates  and  Census  of  Agriculture    25 


Monthly  Crop  Report 

FDBUSHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Washington,  D.  C. 


OCTOBER,  1917 


Vol.  3,  No.  10 


TW  MOHTHUt  cmor  ■■PO«T  1 

""  Ut«i.  BBdM  ik*  Mil 

kirWklteB  Id  tk«  n 
r  aT  Ik*  Bvnsa  tt  C 
WaAlagtoB,  D.  C 


>  of  au-  BarrAM  «f  CrOf  KMmimttt  tttr  Farm- 


Um  BarcsD  at  Crap  S*«DMta^  « 

rAirimtorc.     AD  rannanica-  wC  T    "     ' 

IB  akKUi]  ho  ■ddre^tcd  io  lfc»  _.^„_ __. .. , 

d  SlalM  DepatiBFBl  of  Aplcsl-         EaUnuo.  UoHad  Stalsa  D^artinaiil  of  Aaiirahurr      Olhci  ap»llcanl*  > 
■ddma  tka  DlrMaa  affabllMltoi.  Dcyaruacnl  af  Afrirvlnfc, 


VNTTED  STATES  CROP  SUMMARY  FOB  OCTOBEB. 


OcV  I,  IM7. 


&epL  1 


DecetnhtT,  1916, 


1911-1915. 
6-yev  avenge. 


CouQtry  prices  Oct.  1— 


191 1-1915. 
.  6-yeaf 
•veragf-. 


Winter  wbest.......biislieb. 

Spring  wbut.. do... 

All  wheat. .,.„....-..... do  .. 

CorB ,,i,^.-...do. -. 

Oats , .,-4o  . 


Barley  .„  A  *.».i. 

Rye 

liuckMhi^C „ 

White  potatOM 
6w«et  potatoctf.. 


..do,     ^ 

..do 


Flax — „ „  ..do 

Bin .do 

Tobscto pouDds  . 

Cotton balefl- 

Peachcs .„ tonsbete. 

Pears do,. 

Applps,  total  crop do 

Apples,  eotniuerc^.  .barrH«. . 

ti;iy.  tame tuQ^t. 

K^y.  wUd  do  . 

Hay,  total.. ..., do.... 

jicmr  boets do 

Kallrs bmbels 

Beaus.  commercial.     .  do 
t>nJoiu.      fall     commercial 

crop..-. busbels 

CabbaKCii,  Commercial .  tons 


■  417^7,000 
>  34Z.4oO,«00 

•»,?IB,7M.O0O 
'  1.586,714,000 

1  2fll,U94>00 

*  M,OU,WM 

4S^9Z.1^000 
67.U4.000 

ll.US.ftOO 

33.U6.O0O 

4^3,020.000 

12,04:. 000 

*  iz,6oe.ooo 

1Q.S4S,00« 

2I.19;,«00 
>  7S.4  90,009 

Mi,«fi.ooa 

91,715,000 

7,Kn,000 

fa.609.ooa 

*  15.814,000 

U;rS54,0M 

«9Z,0»0 


^  7.909,000 

-  7,909.000 

-M.in.ooo 

+«7,382,0M 

-  Z,180,0M 


-  «.H5.aM 

-  Hn.ooo 
+    rs,ooo 

+  1.019.600 
+n,S37,0M 

-  4A2.000 


-t-  7,000 

-^      S37.000 
-      123.000 


-  1I1.0M 

-  4,3?9.0O0 

-•i,iu.oa« 

-  SM.WO 

-.     u,afto 


«n,7u.t«o 

S&a,l42,C*l 

OlAHCOOO 

t,5S3, 241,000 

l;£U.«9V>00 

IM,»n,«w 

«7.2U,B»0 

SW,437,9«0 
M,ftS&,MO 

lS.i59,k00 

40,702.000 

1*15(1,627,000 

11.450,000 

10,377.000. 

M«.?4'.,000 
«6,695.oao 
89.991,000 
19,796,600 

te9,7HC0OO 

4.r?<i.ow 

to.340,ooa 

*§.K4fi,0O0 

7,832.000 

253.0W 


MZ.815.000 
tt3,7t«,WW 

HU,3(n.00« 
1,751. 1U,I>00 
l,t36.1»t.0M 

197.211,004 
41.399,«40 
J  C.5  •!,»(»! 

3e?.9fO.«lA 
40,757.000 

1A,6I5,900 

»,2W,oeo 

S83,721,BO0 
ll,174,0l>0 
49,027,000 

11,341,000 

tl5,57t,000 

<»,M3.aoa 

17,044.000 
«6,5S7,«00 


l.l» 

l.6»8 
J  Uf 


.745 
1.041 

SOA 
1.120 


9^918 


.184 

.751 
.7X2 


T7.6fi 

'1.027 

.811 

CMl 


*  Prcluauury  e^ttimitlc. 


•Price  Sept  ly 


hme  of  lasDANce  and  scope  of  the  November 

CROP  BEPOBT. 

Od  TbonU)'  Ttoveaher  6,  at  2  15  p  m  (eutera  time)  the 
Bureau  ol  Crop  EtUmtle*  l'ait*(J  &iAtee  DepMitment  p(  Agrinii- 
turp,  «ill  loeae  a  crop  nnozoAry  which  wiU  pve  the  (ollo''nii^  mloz- 
motion  The  production  and  qLiatiiy  or  cam  bucJnrheat  pout^Tc* 
rwe«l  potatoM,  tobacco,  flaiseed.  applps.  aod  pan-  tha  perrenlaco 
olthe  W14  con  cnp  ua  lanDMVoveaibei  1  191"  tbe  average  wcirot 
per  mflaairoS  biUbel  of  ifae  wttesL.  oota.  aod  baxlay  aop«  of  Uiis 

A  irciieni  reviflw  o)  crop  condilloaa  on  Ncvembcr  1  will  bp  given, 
wlucb  will  include  the  laUowmg  rtao»  The  production  compared 
Willi  0  fuU  crop  ol  clover  •»«)  grain  sorgbum  field  peas  grapes. 
cranbemdB.  pemuu,  aimoods.  and  walnuta  dveiago  yield  ot  simp 
p«r  acre  of  Mrghum,  coodiLioD  on  Noxembftr  1  or  at  time  of  bar- 
vcBt.  erf  fogar  cane,  rugaj  beet*,  oraoces,  lemoaa,  limoe.  grapcfruu. 
and  olivas.    No  report  on  cotUm  vl0  be  issued  m  November 


•All  bay.  'FiveBtale* 

GENEEAt  REVIEW  OF  CROP  CONDITIONS  OCTOBEB 
I.  M17. 

The  oompoflite  conditioQ  erf  all  cropp  of'tbe  Unitod  Blaief  <ta 
Oclob«r  1  or  at  lime  of  hJjveM  iru  2  4  pet  cenr  higher  than  tboit 
10-year  average  condition  on  that  dai«  ta  oompueo  nth  a  coikU 
tloD  2  5  per  cent  abovp  average  od  Pcptcnibej  1  F\na(  >ield« jpei 
acre  o(  crops  taet  year  wtre  about  4  9  per  reni  below  average  The 
tsdei  ouniber  of  aggtegal«  cmp  yielda  this  year  u  about  7  7  pa 
cent  greater  than  last  year  Tnie  year  the  total  acretgo  is  culti- 
vatec]  cjop<>  u  about  3  per  cen'  mtxe  thao  lasi  vear 

The  total  produclioo  of  importAoi  products  mu  year  compared 
with  |a«t  year  u  estimated  an  follows-  Corn  124  J  per  cent,  wheat, 
103.1  per  cent,  oata  125  3  per  cent,  barley  l\\  5  per  cent,  ryo, 
118,1  per  cent,  buckwheat,  1511  per  cent,  while  poLatoea,  158  7 
per  cent,  sweet  potatoes,  123  per  c«jt,  tobacco  103  per  cent,  flax- 
seed. 73  3  per  cent.  rice.  81  7  per  ceat.  hay  (nil),  83  5  per  cant; 
clover  hay    7$  7  per  cent;  cotton,  105.2  per  cent   applflB,  87  3  p«r 


SPECIMEN  OF  MONTHLY  CROP  REPORT  ISSUED  BY  THE  DE- 
PARTMENT OF  AGRICULTURE 

Weekly  Reports  are  issued  concerning  truck  crops 
in  relation  to  acreage  and  condition. 

The  Monthly  Reports  estimated  by  states  and  for 
the  United  States  are  as  follows : 


26  Use  Your  Government 

Acreage.  Corn,  winter  wheat,  spring  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  to- 
bacco, flax,  rice,  tame  and  wild  hay,  cotton,  clover, 
hay,  sugar  beets,  beans,  cranberries,  and  sorghum 
for  syrup. 

Condition.  Expressed  in  percentages  of  normal, 
with  comparisons :  corn,  winter  wheat,  spring  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  sweet  pota- 
toes, tobacco,  flax,  rice,  cotton,  hay,  clover  seeds,  mil- 
let, bluegrass  for  seed,  field  peas,  apples,  peaches, 
pears,  grapes,  etc.,  beans,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  etc. 
Horses  and  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  honey 
bees. 

Forecasts  of  Production.  Based  upon  condition 
estimates  of  corn,  winter  wheat,  spring  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  etc.,  cotton,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  etc. 

Yield  Per  Acre.  Of  corn,  winter  wheat,  spring 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  tobacco,  fruits, 
and  vegetables. 

Forecasts  of  Production  {Quantitative).  As 
above. 

Production  (expressed  in  percentages  of  a  full 
crop).    As  above. 

Prices.  Monthly  or  in  season  of  corn,  wheat, 
oats,  etc.,  fruits,  vegetables,  honey,  butter,  eggs,  cot- 
tonseed, bran,  milk,  maple  sugar,  wool,  walnuts,  pea- 
nuts, hogs,  beef  cattle,  sheep,  lambs,  horses,  etc. 

Quality.  Corn,  winter  wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc., 
fruits,  vegetables,  etc. 


Crop  Estimates  and  Census  of  Agriculture    1^ 

Stocks  on  Farms  on  certain  dates.  Com,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  and  apples. 

Quantity  Shipped  Out  of  County  Where  Grown. 
Corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  apples. 

Numbers.  Total  of  horses,  mules,  milch  cows, 
other  cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  with  percentage  of 
preceding  years.  Also  stock  hogs,  breeding  sows, 
and  honey  bees. 

Losses  During  the  Year  From  Disease  or  Ex- 
posure. Horses  and  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  lambs  and 
swine. 

Weight  Per  Unit  of  Measure.  Wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, and  wool.  In  addition  to  the  data  regularly  col- 
lected relating  to  crops  or  livestock  as  stated  above, 
special  investigations  are  occasionally  made  by  re- 
quest of  other  bureaus. 

Yearly  investigations  are  made  on  the  following 
subjects :  wages  of  farm  labor,  values  of  farm  land, 
plowing  and  planting  done  by  May  1 ;  dates  of  plant- 
ing and  harvesting,  maximum  yields,  causes  of  crop 
damage,  monthly  farm  movements  of  grain  and  cot- 
ton ;  prices  of  articles  purchased  by  farmers. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  Yearbook  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  (of  which  more  than  half 
a  million  are  issued  each  year)  is  the  statistical 
work.  The  statistics  are  collected  in  the  Bureau  of 
Crop  Estimates  and  they  include  data  relating  to 
acreage  and  production  of  many  agricultural  prod- 
ucts in  all  the  important  countries  of  the  world. 


28  Use  Your  Government 

Also  the  exports  and  imports  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  all  the  important  countries. 

Method  of  Issuing  Reports.  Reports  in  relation 
to  cotton  are  issued  on  or  about  the  first  day  of 
each  month  during  the  growing  season. 

Reports  relating  to  the  principal  farm  crops  and 
livestock  are  issued  about  the  7th  or  8th  day  of  each 
month. 

In  order  that  the  information  contained  in  these 
reports  may  be  made  available  simultaneously 
throughout  the  United  States  they  are  handed  in  at 
an  announced  hour,  on  report  days  to  all  applicants 
and  to  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  and 
Postal  Telegraph  Company,  which  have  branch  of- 
fices in  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  transmis- 
sion to  the  exchanges  and  to  the  press.  These  com- 
panies have  reserved  their  lines  at  the  designated 
times,  and  forward  immediately  the  figures  of  most 
interest. 

A  multigraph  statement  containing  such  estimates 
of  conditions  or  actual  production,  together  with  the 
corresponding  estimates  of  former  years,  for  com- 
parative purposes  is  prepared  and  mailed  imme- 
diately to  newspaper  publications. 

The  crop  estimates  for  the  States  and  for  the 
United  States  as  a  whole  are  telegraphed  imme- 
diately to  State  weather  bureau  directors,  in  whose 
offices  copies  are  printed  and  mailed  to  all  the  local 
papers  in  the  State,  so  that  the  crop  estimates  of  the 


'Crop  Estimates  and  Census  of  Agriculture    29 

Bureau  are  published  throughout  the  United  States 
within  twenty-four  hours  of  their  issuance. 

Promptly  after  the  issuing  of  the  report,  it,  to- 
gether with  other  statistical  information  of  value 
to  the  farmer  and  the  country  at  large,  is  published 
in  the  "Monthly  Crop  Report,"  a  publication  of  the 
Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  under  the  authority  of 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  An  edition  of  over 
225,000  copies  is  distributed  to  the  correspondents 
and  other  interested  parties  throughout  the  United 
States  each  month. 

The  practical  value  of  the  Government  crop  esti- 
mates results  from  the  fact  that  they  are  based  up- 
on reports  of  farmers  and  others  in  every  county 
and  township  of  the  United  States,  and  upon  reports 
of  trained  Field  Agents  in  each  State;  they  are 
made  monthly  during  the  crop  season;  they  are 
checked  up  from  every  possible  source  of  informa- 
tion; the  final  reports  are  prepared  and  issued  by 
a  crop  reporting  board  of  experts.  All  Government 
employees  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  crop 
estimates  are  prohibited  from  giving  out  informa- 
tion concerning  them,  or  in  utilizing  information  so 
obtained  for  their  own  benefit  directly  or  indirectly 
prior  to  the  date  and  hour  of  publication.  The  re- 
ports when  issued  are  known  to  be  as  accurate  as  it 
is  practicable  to  make  them,  as  well  as  impartial, 
disinterested,  and  therefore  dependable. 

"Without  such  a  system  of  crop  estimates  specu- 


30  Use  Your  Government 

lators  interested  in  raising  and  lowering  prices  of 
farm  products  would  issue  so  many  conflicting  and 
deceiving  reports  that  it  would  be  almost  impos- 
sible for  any  one  without  great  expense,  to  form  an 
accurate  estimate  of  crop  conditions  and  crop  pros- 
pects. 

Farmers  are  benefited  by  the  Government  crop 
reports  both  directly  and  indirectly.  Directly,  by 
being  kept  informed  of  crop  prospects  and  prices 
outside  of  their  own  immediate  district,  and  indi- 
rectly because  disinterested  reports  of  the  Govern- 
ment tend  to  prevent  the  circulation  of  false  or  mis- 
leading reports  by  speculators  who  are  interested 
in  controlling  or  manipulating  prices. 

In  a  sense  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  is  a  form 
of  farmers '  cooperation  wherein  each  farm  crop  re- 
porter gives  information  about  his  locality  and  in 
return  receives  information  about  the  entire  coun- 
try, the  Bureau  merely  acting  as  a  clearing  house 
for  such  cooperative  exchange. 

The  more  certainty  there  is  as  to  the  probable 
supply  and  demand,  the  less  chance  for  speculation 
and  loss  in  the  business  of  distributing  and  market- 
ing the  crops,  which  is  a  benefit  both  to  the  producer 
and  the  consumer. 
Bureau  of  The  Decennial  Census,  taken  in  a  year  | 
Census.  divisible  by  ten  (see  page  206),  covers, 

in  addition  to  population,  manufactures  and  mines 
and  quarries,  the  subject  of  agriculture.     The  ^e- 


Crop  Estimates  and  Census  of  Agriculture    31 

ports,  like  those  for  population  and  manufactures, 
are  issued  not  only  in  large  bound  volumes  but  also 
in  the  form  of  numerous  paper  bound  bulletins.  One 
series  of  these  bulletins  represents  the  agricultural 
statistics  for  each  individual  state,  a  separate  bulle- 
tin being  issued  for  each  state.  Another  series  gives 
statistics  covering  the  various  stages  of  agriculture 
— for  example,  the  value  of  farms  and  farm  proper- 
ties ;  numbers  and  value  of  live  stock ;  acreage,  pro- 
duction, and  value  of  crops;  etc.  The  bound  vol- 
umes may  be  consulted  at  the  leading  libraries,  and 
the  bulletins  are  sent  gratis  by  the  Census  Bureau 
to  all  who  desire  them.  The  report  of  the  Census  of 
Agriculture  presents  detailed  statistics  as  to  acre- 
age, improved  acreage,  and  value  of  farms ;  value  of 
farm  property;  tenure  (whether  operated  by  owner, 
by  hired  manager,  or  by  tenant) ;  farm  mortgages; 
race ;  nativity  and  tenure  of  farmers ;  size  of  farms ; 
number  and  value  of  live  stock  on  farms  and  else- 
where ;  live  stock  products ;  crops ;  irrigation,  etc. 

By  an  examination  of  the  Census  reports  on  agri- 
culture, the  farmer  can  compare  the  productiveness 
of  his  farm  or  the  average  productiveness  of  farms 
in  his  community  with  the  productiveness  of  farms 
in  other  localities  in  which  similar  crops  are  grown ; 
he  can  ascertain  what  are  the  principal  products  of 
any  state  or  county  in  which  he  may  be  interested ; 
he  can  make  a  comparison  of  farm  values  in  differ- 
ent localities;  and  he  can  obtain  information  along 


32  Use  Your  Government 

many  other  lines  in  which  the  progressive  agricul- 
turist is  apt  to  be  interested. 

Not  only  are  the  Census  statistics  of  direct  value 
to  the  farmer  in  this  manner,  but  they  are  of  indi- 
rect value  in  that  they  provide  the  basis  for  much 
of  the  work  done  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
including  the  compilation  of  its  annual  estimates 
pertaining  to  crop  acreage  and  production  of  Hve 
stock. 

The  cotton  and  tobacco  statistics,  already  de- 
scribed are  also  of  great  value  to  those  farmers  who 
produce  cotton  and  tobacco  respectively. 


CHAPTER  IV.— CONTROLLING  OF  DESTRUC- 
TIVE INSECTS  AND  BIRDS 

The  best  methods  of  controlling  insects  destruc- 
tive to  agriculture  is  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Bureau  of  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology. 
Entomol-  The  subject  of  the  damage  to  the  health 
^S7'  of  livestock  and  to  the  health  of  man 

himself  by  the  carriage  of  disease  through  insects 
is  also  included  in  its  work. 

The  Bureau  has  a  number  of  specialists  constantly 
working  in  cooperation  with  the  National  Museum 
on  specimens  of  insects  both  injurious  and  bene- 
ficial. Should  any  insects  not  already  well  known  be 
discovered,  their  habits  are  studied  for  only  thus  is 
it  possible  to  obtain  clues  for  their  destruction,  and 
their  natural  enemies  are  sought  out  and  set  to  de- 
vour them.  A  great  many  injurious  insects  are  ac- 
cidentally imported  from  other  countries  and  for 
this  experts  are  sent  to  the  country  of  their  origin 
to  make  the  necessary  investigations  that  would  lead 
to  their  eventual  eradication. 

Extensive  experiments  in  orchards  are  made  to 
determine  species  of  troublesome  insects  and  the 
amount  of  injury  resulting  from  their  work.  Labor- 
atory observations  are  checked  by  extensive  obser- 

33 


34  Use  Your  Government 

vation  in  the  field  and  remedial  measures  are  under- 
taken based  on  knowledge  of  the  behavior  of  the  in- 
sects. Experiments  are  carried  out  in  the  field  to 
determine  the  comparative  value  of  respective  spray 
treatments  and  the  most  effective  quantity  of  poison 
to  be  employed.  This  work  is  divided  into  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  insects  known  to  be  destructive  to 
agricultural  crops  and  to  fruits  and  vegetables. 
Representatives  of  the  Bureau  are  sent  to  all  parts 
of  the  country  to  investigate  the  tests  of  insects 
under  conditions  where  demonstrations  can  be  car- 
ried out  on  a  large  scale. 

Besides  the  orchard  investigations,  experiments 
are  carried  on  with  serial  and  forage  crops,  every 
variety  of  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar  cane,  forest  prod- 
ucts, etc. 

Interesting  experiments  are  being  made  with  re- 
gard to  stored  products  and  the  insects  which  are 
the  ruination  of  food  supplies,  and  procedures  of 
packing  are  recommended  which  will  as  far  as  pos- 
sible make  the  products  insect  proof,  methods  of 
fumigation  having  also  been  studied. 

The  Bureau  is  constantly  trying  out  various  in- 
secticides for  the  insects  which  affect  the  heath  of 
man  in  so  far  as  they  transmit  disease.  This  work 
is  carried  out  in  cooperation  with  the  work  of  the 
Public  Health  Service  in  the  rural  districts.  (See 
page  107.) 

Demonstration  work  in  connection  with  all  phases 


TV  '    *'    1* 


Spraying  cart  used  by  Bureau  of  Entomology  in  operations  against  the 
Gipsy   and   Brown   Tail  Moth. 


Controlling  of  Destructive  Insects  and  Birds    35 

of  the  work  of  the  Bureau  is  carried  on  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  States  Relations  Service.  (See  page 
125.) 

Bulletins  and  pamphlets  are  issued  by  the  Bureau 
of  Entomology  for  the  benefit  of  the  farmer  con- 
cerning his  work. 

The  Insecticide  and  Fungicide  Board  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  charged 
Insecticide  with  the  enforcement  of  the  Insecticide 
and  Fungi-  Act  of  1910.  The  Board  consists  of  four 
cide  Board,  members  representing  the  Bureaus  of 
Chemistry,  Plant  Industry,  Animal  Industry  and 
Entomology.  Working  under  these  members  are 
groups  of  chemists,  bacteriologists,  entomologists, 
plant  pathologists  and  microscopists,  who  analyze 
preparations,  test  their  efficiency  and  pass  upon  the 
claims  made  for  them  on  their  labels. 

The  Board  also  can  call  upon  the  specialists  of  the 
several  Bureaus  for  cooperation  in  special  re- 
searches or  field  or  other  tests.  It  employs  a  clerical 
force  and  a  number  of  inspectors  whose  chief  busi- 
ness is  to  collect  samples  of  suspected  preparations 
as  a  basis  for  legal  proceedings,  should  action  be 
warranted. 

The  Insecticide  Act  is  designed  to  prevent  the 
manufacture  or  sale  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or 
the  territories,  the  interstate  shipment  and  the  im- 
portation of  adulterated  or  misbranded  insecticides 
and  fungicides.     The  range  of  substances  covered 


86  Use  Your  Government 

by  the  Act  is  very  comprehensive.  ''Insecticides" 
besides  Paris  green  and  lead  arsenates  are  defined 
to  include  all  substances  or  mixtures  of  substances 
intended  to  be  used  for  preventing,  destroying,  re- 
pelling, or  mitigating  any  insects  which  may  infect 
vegetation,  man,  animals,  or  households,  or  be  pres- 
ent in  any  environment  whatsoever;  "Fungicides" 
are  defined  as  including  all  substances  or  mixtures 
of  substances  intended  to  be  used  for  preventing, 
destroying,  repelling,  or  mitigating  any  and  all 
fungi  that  may  infest  vegetation  or  be  present  in 
any  environment  whatsoever. 

The  provisions  of  the  law,  therefore,  are  designed 
to  protect  farmers  and  others  from  fraudulent  in- 
secticides and  fungicides  and  other  products  as  well 
as  fraudulent  disinfectants.  The  result  of  its  en- 
forcement has  been  that  farming  communities  in 
particular  are  receiving  a  much  higher  grade  of  in- 
secticides and  fungicides  of  more  standard  composi- 
tion. The  confidence  established  by  this  work 
greatly  encourages  the  manufacturer  in  the  devel- 
opment of  legitimate  material  and  tends  to  encour- 
age the  use  by  farmers  of  preparation  to  combat 
diseases  and  insect  pests  of  their  crop  plants  and 
livestock. 

Destructive  birds  and  mammals  are  a  great  men- 
ace to  agriculture. 

Important  work  in  connection  with  these  is  car- 
ried on  by  the  Biological  Survey. 


Controlling  of  Destructive  Insects  and  Birds    37 

The  work  of  this  Bureau  can  be  divided  as  fol- 
lows: Biological  Investigations,  Economic  Investi- 
Biological  gations,  Game  Preservation  (Reserva- 
Survey.  tions  and  enforcement  of  the  Lacey 
Act)  and  Enforcement  of  the  Migratory  Bird  Law. 

The  Biological  Investigations  of  the  Bureau  are 
of  a  purely  scientific  character  and  form  the  foun- 
dation of  the  other  work  of  the  Bureau. 

They  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  survey  of  all 
States  and  Territories  to  ascertain  the  distribution, 
abundance  and  habits  of  the  birds  and  mammals  and 
to  determine  their  natural  life  zones.  The  infor- 
mation thus  obtained  is  placed  at  the  disposal  of  in- 
dividuals as  well  as  public  and  official  bodies  inter- 
ested. 

The  data  secured  by  these  surveys  has  proved  ex- 
tremely useful  in  formulating  the  provisions  of  the 
Migratory  Bird  Treaty  in  force  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  in  the  preparation  of  many 
of  the  game  laws  of  the  various  States. 

Economic  Investigations  are  made  regarding  the 
relation  of  wild  mammals  and  birds  to  agriculture 
and  methods  of  controlling  the  harmful  ones. 

(a)  Experiments  in  trapping,  fumigating,  poi- 
soning and  other  methods  of  destruction  are  made. 
These  are  reported  and  demonstrated  for  the  bene- 
fit of  farmers. 

(b)  Destruction  of  predatory  animals  and  sup- 
pression of  rabies  among  them.     Predatory  wild 


38  Use  Your  Government 

animals  destroy  large  numbers  of  livestock,  and 
this  has  been  increased  by  an  epidemic  of  rabies 
which  is  prevalent  among  them  in  certain  "Western 
States.  This  disease  is  especially  dangerous,  as  it 
can  be  communicated  to  human  beings  and  to  stock 
and  other  domestic  animals.  The  only  method  for 
the  suppression  of  the  disease  is  the  destruction  of 
the  afflicted  animals.  Hunters  are  employed  in  this 
work  and  over  30,000  animals  were  killed  last  year 
by  trapping,  and  a  still  larger  number  by  poisoning 
campaigns. 

(c)  Assistance  is  also  given  in  the  destruction 
of  smaller  animals,  such  as  prairie-dogs,  rabbits, 
ground  squirrels,  mice,  rats,  etc.,  injurious  to  crops 
and  farm  produce.  In  the  case  of  National  Forests 
and  Public  Domain,  the  work  is  carried  out  by  field 
parties  of  the  Bureau.  In  the  case  of  private  lands 
the  Bureau  cooperates  with  individuals  and  organ- 
izations of  farmers  and  demonstrates  the  methods 
the  Bureau  has  found  most  efficient  in  its  work  and 
aids  them  in  organizing  campaigns.  In  1917,  16,000 
farmers  in  North  Dakota  cooperated  with  the  Bu- 
reau and  over  four  and  one-half  million  acres  were 
practically  cleared  of  ground  squirrels,  saving  a 
million  dollars'  worth  of  crops.  Similar  campaigns 
are  in  progress  in  many  other  States. 

(d)  Investigations  are  being  made  by  the  Bu- 
reau to  determine  what  birds  are  beneficial  to  agri- 
culture, horticulture  and  forestry,  and  which  are 


Controlling  of  Destructive  Insects  and  Birds    39 

destructive.  The  chief  method  of  procedure  here 
is  to  examine  the  stomach  contents  of  the  birds  of 
different  sections  and  species.  Laboratory  analy- 
sis shows  their  contents  and  thus  their  powers  of 
destruction  to  crops,  other  birds,  fruits,  insects, 
etc.,  can  be  determined  definitely. 

The  Game  Preservation  under  the  control  of  the 
Bureau  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into  two  parts : 
(a)  the  enforcement  of  the  Lacey  Act  (Sections  241 
to  244,  inclusive,  of  the  Penal  Code  of  the  United 
States)  and  (b)  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  Mammal  and  Bird  Reservations. 

The  Lacey  Act  prohibits  the  interstate  shipment 
of  any  foreign  animals  the  importation  of  which  is 
prohibited,  and  also  forbids  interstate  traffic  in  the 
dead  bodies  or  parts  thereof  of  any  wild  animals  or 
birds  when  such  animals  or  birds  have  been  killed 
or  shipped  in  violation  of  the  laws  of  the  State,  Ter- 
ritory or  District  in  which  same  were  killed,  or  from 
which  the  same  were  shipped.  Any  evidence  against 
violations  of  this  Act  is  obtained  from  individuals, 
dealers  and  transportation  companies. 

Under  this  Act  there  is  also  forbidden  the  im- 
portation of  foreign  birds  and  mammals  or  an  in- 
jurious species.  Permits  from  the  Bureau  are  re- 
quired for  most  birds  and  mammals  before  they  may 
enter  the  country.  For  this  purpose  officers  of  the 
Bureau  are  placed  at  all  points  of  entry. 

The  Government  maintains  74  National  reserva- 


40  Use  Your  Government 

tions  for  bi^  game  birds.  The  object  of  these  is  to 
perpetuate  the  bird  life  of  the  Nation  as  well  as 
game  mammals  for  the  benefit  of  the  people  from 
a  recreational  as  well  as  from  an  economic  point  of 
view.  A  winter  refuge  for  elk,  with  sufficient  hay 
for  food,  is  established  by  the  Government  to  insure 
perpetuation  of  the  elk. 

The  Migratory  Bird  Law  is  also  enforced  by  this 
Bureau.  In  connection  therewith  information  is 
handed  out  to  the  public  showing  the  object  and 
necessity  of  the  law  for  the  protection  of  migratory 
birds,  and  a  campaign  of  education  has  begun  to  in- 
terest people  at  large  and  demonstrate  to  sports- 
men and  gunners  the  necessity  for  the  proper  ob- 
servance of  the  regulations  under  the  Migratory 
Bird  Law. 


Vaccinating  cattle  against  Black  Leg  with  vaccine  furnished   free  of 

charge  by  the  Government. 


Dipping  cattle  in  arsenical  solution  to  kill  ticks. 


CHAPTER  v.— FOSTERING  AND  IMPROVING 
OF  LIVESTOCK.    DAIRYING 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  fosters  and  im- 
proves the  live  stock  industry.  Its  work  includes 
Bureau  of  investigations  and  educational  work  in 
Animal  connection  with  the  breeding,   feeding 

Industry.  ^^^^  management  of  horses,  beef  cattle, 
sheep,  goats,  swine  and  poultry.  The  experiments 
deal  mainly  with  the  broad  problems  of  suitability 
of  types  of  animals  for  general  areas  and  conditions 
affecting  breeding  and  growth  in  farm  animals. 

The  Bureau  also  carries  on  important  work  re- 
garding animal  diseases.  This  may  be  divided  into 
scientific  investigations,  educational  work  and  ad- 
ministrative work  in  connection  with  the  educational 
work.  The  administrative  work  is  performed  in 
connection  with  the  state  authorities  for  the  en- 
forcement of  Federal  and  State  laws  existing  for 
the  quarantine  of  diseased  animals.  Whole  areas 
have  been  freed  from  prevalent  animal  diseases 
through  the  enforcement  of  these  laws  combined 
with  the  educational  work  of  the  Bureau. 

Animal  diseases  are  studied  by  a  corps  of  scien- 
tists mostly  veterinarians  with  special  training  in 
bacteriology.    Information  and  advice  are  given  to 

41 


42  Use  Your  Government 

the  public  as  to  the  nature  of  such  diseases  and  how- 
to  prevent  and  treat  them  in  great  detail  by  demon- 
strations on  the  part  of  county  agents  and  exten- 
sion specialist  (see  page  125).  Publications  and 
correspondence  also  help  to  further  this  work. 

Hog  cholera,  tuberculosis  and  contagious  abortion 
are  subjects  which  have  been  especially  studied  with 
a  view  to  furnishing  stock  owners  information  that 
will  enable  them  to  check  and  eliminate  these  dis- 
eases. Scabies  of  sheep  and  cattle,  the  exterminat- 
ing of  ticks  and  other  such  diseases  have  been 
problems  which  have  greatly  occupied  the  Bureau 
in  the  regions  where  they  are  specially  prevalent. 

The  Bureau  maintains  a  system  of  inspection  and 
quarantine  of  imported  animals  with  the  object  of 
preventing  the  introduction  of  contagious  animal 
diseases  from  other  countries. 

It  also  inspects  animals  for  export  from  the 
United  States  so  as  to  insure  the  healthfulness  of 
such  animals  and  thereby  fosters  and  protects  the 
foreign  commerce  of  the  country. 

Animals  in  interstate  commerce  are  also  examined 
in  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease  through- 
out the  country. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  a  division 
entirely  devoted  to  dairying  which  is  promoting  and 
assisting  to  organize  the  dairy  industry  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  it  is  as  yet  undeveloped. 
The  work  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  namely, 


Dairy  meeting — how  the  model  of  a  cow  stall  was  used  iii  discussing 

model  barns. 


Poultry    and    Egg    Packing    Demonstrating    Car    of    the    Bureau    of 

Chemistry.      (See  page   71.) 


Fostering  and  Improving  Livestock        43 

Laboratory,  Eesearch,  Field  Research  and  Dairy 
Extension. 

The  Laboratory  Eesearch  work  includes  investi- 
gations in  all  that  concerns  milk  (skim  milk,  butter- 
milk and  condensed  milk),  various  kinds  of  cheeses 
(including  foreign  types),  also  the  manufacture  and 
handling  of  commercial  ice  cream. 

The  Field  Research  consists  of  investigations  in 
cow  testing  associations  and  bull  associations; 
creamery  management  (i.  e.,  study  of  cost  of  oper- 
ation, cost  of  fuel,  pasteurization  of  cream  for  but- 
ter making,  etc.) ;  dairy  sanitation  (a  study  of  the 
city  milk  supplies) ;  cost  of  milk  production  on  the 
average  dairy  farm;  and  the  cost  of  handling  milk 
in  cities  including  the  cost  of  various  operations  in 
preparing  milk  for  the  market.  Experiments  are 
also  conducted  in  the  feeding,  breeding,  housing  and 
care  of  dairy  cattle  and  handling  of  market  milk. 

Extension  Work  is  conducted  in  cooperation  with 
the  Extension  Departments  of  the  State  Agricul- 
tural Colleges  and  the  States  Relations  Service 
(see  page  125).  Men  engaged  in  this  work  instruct 
farmers  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  the  raising  of 
calves,  construction  of  silos  and  dairy  buildings. 
They  also  introduce  herd  records,  give  advice  in  the 
selection  of  pure  bred  bulls  and  assist  in  the  organ- 
ization of  cow  testing  and  bull  associations. 

They  also  give  assistance  in  the  organization  of 
creameries  and  cheese  factories. 


44  Use  Your  Government 

In  the  enforcement  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  the 
Bureau  of  Chemistry  often  finds  that  certain  milk 
Bureau  of  supply  is  impure.  This  is  generally  due 
Chemistry,  to  lack  of  sanitation,  and  the  inspectors 
of  the  Department  in  such  cases  investigate  the 
farms  from  which  the  milk  has  been  bought.  They 
endeavor  to  instruct  the  farmer  in  modern  methods 
of  sanitation  so  that  his  milk  may  be  brought  up  to 
standard  requirements. 

Investigations  are  being  made  for  the  benefit  of 
the  farmer  concerning  the  utilization  of  various 
waste  by-products  as  cattle  food.  A  special  inves- 
tigation concerning  forage  crops  is  being  made  by 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  in  order  to  find  out  their 
chemical  composition  and  values  as  stock  food. 


U.S. DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


m  EWiEJIS*  iliUGM  ^ 


-^^ii 


()()2 


^7  •   Conliibulion  from  the  Buri-..u  o(  Aniimil  lii.luMiy,  .'V.  D.  Mclvin.  Chief. 

y  .■\u^mt2l.  I<)I4. 

PKODIC  TION  OF  CLEAN  MILK. 

/'irfiirt'l  lit  ibt-  hnirij  JHviitioii, 

Kvcry  ownrr  nf  a  dairy  iu'nl  slnnihl  ('(iiisidfr  il   iii^  duly  to  liim- 
sclf  and  to  tlir  conimuiiitv   to  ki-rp  only  limltliy  cows,  supply  ilicin 


Fui.  1.— Acl«'animlk(riiiac'K-;mslul>k'alrnjlkinRtimf.     NnU^i  ho  cIfansnU.iaDil;ir\'iiiiikin|;  .si  uot,  small- 
lop  pail,  Vx^v  \vi?h  rli;iii  flnnk'i  and  mlikr.aud  saiii'iiry  slaMi'  Cdivstrurtion.    I'li-lcr  ihoso  coruUtions  il 
is  an  o;i.sy  in.ilUr  tu  prmhiCi-  cU'an  milk. 
NoTK.— 'Ihi^  I'ltlU-iiti  isinico'lod  tobpof  fc^pccialvahip  lo  all  imtsoho  tMi^-afjcl  iii  (hfiTuduciiouoJmilk, 

BUd  also  lo  coiiiumtT?  who  are  uiurestcd  in  procurini;  clean,  saf'-  milk. 
4'36ii»t--lU;ll.(i02— U—    I 


Example  of  a  Farmer's  Bulletin. 


, 


CHAPTER  VI.— GRAZING  ON  FOREST  LANDS 
AND  FOREST  FIRE  PROTECTION 

Along  with  the  timber  on  national  forests  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  grazing  land,  about  10,000,000 
Forest  sheep,   goats,   cattle   and   horses    graz- 

Service.  ing  under  permit  annually  on  the 
national  forests. 

Payment  for  the  grazing  privilege  is  based  on  a 
certain  fee  per  head  for  the  grazing  season  which 
is  considerably  less  than  the  fee  charged  on  com- 
mercial ranges. 

Local  settlers,  farmers,  and  stockmen  have  the 
first  right  to  the  use  of  the  range  and  every  man  who 
raises  stock  on  the  forests  is  allotted  a  certain  area 
for  the  grazing  season.  In  this  way  unfair  compe- 
tition between  the  big  man  and  the  little  man  is  done 
away  with.  Under  the  prevailing  proper  regula- 
tions the  range  is  improved  instead  of  overgrazed 
and  denuded  as  has  been  the  case  with  many  of  the 
outside  public  lands. 

Each  farmer  in  or  near  a  national  forest  is  al- 
lowed to  graze  free  of  charge  ten  head  of  milch  cat- 
tle for  domestic  use. 

Wherever  the  national  forests  are  used  for  com- 

45 


46  Use  Your  Government  | 

'i 
mercial  purposes   an   equitable   charge  is   always  ] 

made.    Forty-five  per  cent,  of  this  charge  goes  back  j 

into  the  state  where  the  forest  is  located  for  the  • 

school  and  road  fund.    The  remainder  goes  into  the  ; 

Treasury  to  offset  the  cost  of  administration.  < 

For  the  farmer  who  owns  timber  land  the  Forest  i 
Service  conducts  a  number  of  special  investigations 
relating  to  the  growth  and  the  management  of  for-  , 
ests  and  their  utilization  in  order  to  determine  how  : 
different  types  of  forests  should  be  handled.  i 

One  of  the  prime  purposes  for  the  establishment  ; 
of  the  National  Forests  is  the  regulation  of  stream  | 
flow  which  results  in  the  retarding  of  soil  erosions  ; 
and  the  diminution  of  floods  so  destructive  to  farm 
lands.     The  forest  cover  on  the  slopes  serves  as  a 
protection  to  the  soil  beneath,  breaking  the  force  of 
rain  and  melted  snows  which  on  unforested  slopes 
rush  off  the  surface  causing  floods  and  carrying  off 
the  soil.    On  a  forested  slope  the  water  is  absorbed 
by  the  humus  on  the  ground,  seeps  down  into  the 
soil  which  is  kept  porous  by  the  humus  cover  and  is 
held  together  by  the  interlacing  roots  of  trees,  the 
water  thus  reaching  the  springs  and  streams  gradu- 
ally. ":\ 

The  most  important  part  of  the  administration  of 
the  National  Forests  is  their  protection  from  fire. 
The  average  loss  to  the  country  in  the  past  through 
forest  fires  is  estimated  at  about  $25,000,000  yearly. 
Very  few  fires  on  the  National  Forests  gain  much 


Forest  Eangers  fighting  a  fire  in  the  National  Forests. 


Marking  timber  for  a  sale  under  Government  regulation. 

237.) 


(See  page     i 


Grazing  on  Forest  Lands  and  Fire  Protection    4t^ 

headway,  because  of  the  vigilance  and  efforts  of  the 
Forest  officers.  Every  effort  is  also  made  to  pre- 
vent fires  from  starting. 

All  during  the  danger  season  a  thorough  fire 
patrol  is  maintained,  and  on  the  mountain  tops  are 
lookout  stations  where  guards  watch  for  fires  all 
day  long.  When  a  fire  is  discovered,  headquarters 
are  notified  and  a  crew  is  sent  to  extinguish  it.  If 
a  patrolman  finds  a  small  fire  he  may  be  able  to  ex- 
tinguish it  himself;  otherwise,  he  seeks  help  from 
other  Forest  officers. 

For  effective  fire  protection  in  the  Forest,  two 
things  are  necessary:  first,  a  means  of  speedy  com- 
munication whereby  news  of  a  fire  may  be  spread 
over  a  large  area  and  help  summoned.  This  need 
is  being  met  by  the  telephone  lines  which  are  being 
strung  through  the  National  Forests.  Up  to  June 
30,  1917,  more  than  23,000  miles  of  permanent  tele- 
phone line  had  been  installed  in  these  Forests.  The 
lookout  stations  are  equipped  with  telephone  service 
and  the  patrolmen  are  furnished  with  portable  tele- 
phones which  they  carry  on  their  rounds  of  in- 
spection and  which  enable  them  to  tap  wires  at  any 
point.  In  case  of  large  forest  fires,  emergency  lines 
are  laid  from  the  fighting  line  to  the  headquarters  or 
base  of  supplies.  Several  miles  of  this  emergency 
equipment  may  be  strung  in  a  day.  Heliographs, 
for  flashing  sun  messages,  are  also  used  as  supple- 
ments to  the  telephone. 


48  Use  Your  Government 

The  second  requisite  for  successful  fire  protection 
is  that  every  part  of  the  Forest  be  made  accessible, 
so  that  men  and  fire-fighting  equipment  may  be  got- 
ten quickly  to  the  scene  of  the  fire.  This  need  is  be- 
ing met  by  the  trails,  wagon  roads,  and  bridges 
which  are  being  constructed  on  the  Forests.  For 
the  past  few  years  about  three-quarters  of  a  mil- 
lion dollars  has  been  spent  annually  in  the  various 
states  in  which  the  National  Forests  are  located  in 
permanent  improvements  of  this  and  other  kinds, 
which  not  only  tend  toward  the  protection  of  the 
Forests  from  fire,  but  facilitate  the  transaction  of 
other  Forest  business  and  make  the  Forests  more 
useful  to  the  people  living  in  and  around  them. 
Nearly  3,000  miles  of  road  and  more  than  25,000 
miles  of  train  were  built  on  the  National  Forests  up 
to  June  30,  1917.  In  addition  to  the  sums  hitherto 
available,  one  milhon  dollars  a  year  is  to  be  spent 
for  ten  years  for  road  construction  in  and  adjacent 
to  National  Forests. 

It  is  only  by  such  means  as  telephone  lines,  trails, 
and  bridges  that  the  small  force  on  the  National 
Forests  is  enabled  to  protect  these  Forests  so  eifect- 
ively.  It  is  by  such  means  that  one  Eanger  is  en- 
abled to  care  for  on  an  average  of  over  100,000 
acres.  These  improvements  aid  the  traveler  and  the 
settler,  facilitate  the  transfer  of  grazing  stock  over 
the  Forests,  and  in  other  ways  open  up  these  hith- 
erto trackless  wildernesses  to  commerce,  the  home- 


Grazing  on  Forest  Lands  and  Fire  Protection    49 

seeker,  the  prospector,  the  stockman,  the  hunter 
and  fisherman  and  the  vacationist. 

Dififerent  kinds  of  fires  on  a  National  Forest  are 
combated  in  different  ways.  A  surface  fire  burning 
up  the  litter  scattered  over  the  ground  or  a  grass 
fire  may,  if  caught  early,  be  easily  extinguished  with 
sprinklers  or  by  being  beaten  out  with  branches  or 
wet  gunny  sacks  or  saddle  blankets,  or  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  fire  line  and  allowed  to  bum  itself 
Dut.  A  ground  fire,  burning  in  the  humus,  often  un- 
seen, is  more  difficult  to  combat.  Trenches  must  be 
dug  down  to  the  mineral  soil  to  prevent  its  advance. 
While  neither  surface  nor  ground  fires  consume  the 
trees,  they  do  incalculable  damage  by  burning  into 
the  bases  of  trees,  thus  giving  entrance  to  insects 
and  fungi,  uncovering  the  roots  of  trees  and  de- 
stroying young  growth. 

The  most  formidable  fire,  however,  is  the  crown 
fire,  in  which  the  trees  themselves  burn.  In  fighting 
fires  of  this  kind,  trees  are  sometimes  felled  ahead 
of  the  fire  and  back  fires  are  started  in  advance,  so 
that  the  main  conflagration  may  die  for  lack  of  fuel. 
When,  however,  a  forest  fire  gains  full  headway, 
only  the  merciful  elements  of  heavy  rains  or  revers- 
ing winds  can  stop  it.  Forest  fires  have  been  known 
to  advance  over  50  miles  an  hour  and  to  jump 
streams  half  a  mile  wide.  Under  circumstances  like 
these,  the  efforts  of  man  are  powerless. 

More  important  than  extinguishing  forest  fires  is 


50  Use  Your  Government 

their  prevention.    The  Rangers  are  ever  on  the  alert 
to  prevent  forest  fires  from  starting. 

Among  the  permanent  improvements  made  are 
fire  lines,  cleared  of  timber  and  kept  free  from  brush 
and  other  inflammable  material,  and  so  constructed 
that  they  will  prevent  the  spread  of  small  fires  from 
one  part  of  a  forest  to  another,  and  serve  as  lines 
from  which  fires  can  be  fought  and  from  which  back 
fires  can  be  set.  More  than  1,000  miles  of  fire  Hne 
has  been  built  on  the  National  Forests. 


CHAPTER  VII.— RURAL  ROADS  AND  RURAL 

ENGINEERING 

r.rn        -  The  roads  in  the  rural  districts,  as 

OiSce  of  .      .  ' 

Public  ^^^^  ^^  sanitation  and  engineering,  are 

Roads  and     attended    to    by    the    Office    of    Public 
Rural  En-      Roads  and  Rural  Engineering. 
^  ^'         This   Office  administers  the   Federal 

Aid  Road  Act,  under  which  the  Government  has 
appropriated  $75,000,000.00  to  cooperate  with  the 
several  states  in  the  improvement  of  post  roads,  and 
$10,000,000.00  for  the  improvement  of  the  roads  in 
the  National  Forests.  It  collects  data  on  road  mile- 
age, revenues  and  expenditures  of  each  state,  con- 
ducts studies  of  costs  of  construction  and  mainte- 
nance to  determine  the  burden  and  benefits  of 
improved  roads  to  communities;  makes  studies  of 
traffic  regulations,  and  the  adaptability  of  road  sur- 
face types  to  traffic  conditions.  It  gives  assistance 
to  local  road  authorities  by  demonstrating  proper 
construction  methods  and  instructs  them  in  the  road 
building  art. 

In  its  division  of  testing  it  examines  bituminous 
and  nonbituminous  materials  to  determine  their 
suitability  for  use  in  particular  types  of  road  work, 
furnishes  advice  on  such  materials  or  their  use; 

51 


152  Use  Your  Government 

conducts  research,  both  in  the  laboratory  and  in  con- 
nection with  field  work  of  the  Office,  to  correlate 
laboratory  tests  with  behavior  in  service,  to  develop 
improved  materials  or  methods  of  use,  to  revise 
present  methods  of  testing  and  to  develop  new  ones, 
etc. 

The  Office  also  investigates  the  physical  properties 
of  concrete  and  studies  the  distribution  of  pressure 
through  fills  and  foundations. 

In  its  farm  drainage  investigations  the  Office  as- 
sists farm  owners  in  planning  drainage  improve- 
ments for  reclaiming  wet  areas  or  improving  the 
crops  on  the  fields  that  are  producing  poor  or  in- 
different yields  on  account  of  excessive  moisture. 
It  gives  advice  in  regard  to  the  feasibility  of  re- 
claiming swamp  areas  and  land  subject  to  inun- 
dation and  gives  assistance  in  planning  improve- 
ments for  some  typical  areas.  In  order  to  benefit 
land  owners,  drainage  engineers  and  drainage  dis- 
trict officers,  it  makes  studies  of  construction,  oper- 
ation and  maintenance  of  drainage  improvements, 
including  equipment,  methods  and  costs  of  digging 
ditches,  building  levees,  and  designing  drainage 
pumping  plants,  farm  drains,  and  arrangement  of 
tile  drains. 

In  farm  irrigation  investigations,  the  Office  con- 
ducts studies  into  the  use  of  water  in  irrigation,  in 
looking  to  the  prevention  of  waste  of  water  and  the 
determination  of  proper  quantities  to  use  for  var- 


Crops  drowned  out  for  lack  of  drainage. 


n 


Good  crops  on  the  same  land,  after  tile  drainage  according  to  instruc- 
tion of  OflSee  of  Public  Eoads  and  Rural  Engineering. 


Rural  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering      53 

ious  crops  under  different  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate ;  the  adaptability  of  methods  of  distributing 
water  to  crops;  the  measurement  of  water  used  in 
irrigation;  the  adaptability  of  pumping  machinery 
to  supply  water  for  irrigation  and  determine  the 
cost  of  installation  and  operation  of  wells  and 
pumping  machinery.  It  also  conducts  a  study  of 
customs,  to  determine  the  effect  of  regulations  and 
law  upon  the  use  of  water  to  irrigation  farmers. 

Through  its  Division  of  Farm  Engineering  the 
Office  advises  upon  and  makes  plans  for  farm  light- 
ing systems,  water  supply  systems,  sewage  disposal, 
farmstead  buildings  adaptable  to  all  localities,  gen- 
eral farm  barns,  storage  and  outhouses,  sheep  and 
stock  bams,  and  refrigeration  plants,  and  deter- 
mines the  adaptability  of  farm  machinery  for  par- 
ticular use. 

Rural  sanitation  is  an  important  part  of  the  work 
undertaken  by  the  Public  Health  Service,  which  vis- 
Public  ^^®^  over  120,000  homes  since  the  three 
Health  years  the  work  has  been  carried  on.  It 
Service.         m^y  \)q  gald  to  consist  of: 

(1)  A  determination  of  causes  responsible  for  in- 
sanitary conditions  in  rural  districts  and  their  ef- 
fect upon  the  health  of  the  population. 

(2)  A  demonstration  to  rural  residents  of  how 
the  most  prevalent  diseases  are  brought  about  and 
how  they  can  be  most  effectively  and  economically 
prevented. 


54  Use  Your  Government 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  the  service  is  to  awaken 
in  rural  communities  and  individuals  a  communal 
interest  in  public  health  questions  which  will,  in 
turn,  lead  to  an  improvement  in  sanitary  conditions 
and  the  maintenance  of  an  efficient  local  health 
agency. 

The  plan  for  these  surveys  is  to  visit  as  many  in- 
dividual homes  as  possible,  and  to  reinspect  a  cer- 
tain number  of  homes  in  different  neighborhoods  to 
find  out  the  sanitary  improvements  carried  out ;  de- 
livery of  lectures  on  sanitation;  inspections  of  pub- 
lic buildings;  securing  the  cooperation  of  civic  or- 
ganizations and  prominent  citizens;  and  surveys  of 
the  incorporated  towns  in  the  county;  and  making 
the  civic  recommendations  to  the  authorities  which 
will  bring  about  sanitary  living  conditions. 

Numerous  publications  are  issued  by  the  Public 
Health  Service  with  regard  to  rural  sanitation  and 
concerning  the  erection  of  proper  sanitary  arrange- 
ments in  homes,  the  screening  of  houses,  the 
keeping  out  of  flies  and  mosquitoes,  clean  water, 
etc. 

These  publications  are  sent  out  on  request  to  au- 
thorities or  separate  individuals  and  are  of  assist- 
ance to  the  officers  in  their  work. 

They  are  also  sent  in  answer  to  numerous  re- 
quests for  advice  from  correspondents  inquiries 
from  the  rural  districts  relating  to  health  and  san- 


Rural  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering      55 

itation  being  greatly  encouraged  by  the  Health  Ser- 
vice. 

Advice  on  rural  sanitation  is  also  given  by  the 
Demonstration  Agents  of  the  States  Relations  Ser- 
vice (see  page  125). 


CHAPTER  VIIL— FARM  MANAGEMENT. 
PROCURING  OP  FARM  HANDS 

All  types  of  farming  from  a  purely  business 
standpoint  for  the  individual  farmer,  with  a  view 
Office  of  ^^  promoting  efficiency  and  insure  profit- 
Farm  Man-  able  operations,  are  studied  by  the  Of- 
agement.       fi^e  of  Farm  Management. 

It  places  the  information  obtained  at  the  disposal 
of  those  interested  to  the  end  that  unsuccessful 
farms  may  be  converted  into  efficient  and  profitable 
business  enterprises. 

The  field  covered  by  this  Office  is  a  very  broad 
one,  since  the  facts  to  be  considered  in  organizing 
a  farm  business  under  different  conditions  and  in 
various  sections  are  even  more  numerous  than  those 
involved  in  other  lines  of  business. 

The  necessary  information  is  obtained  at  first  hand 
directly  from  farms  in  practical  operation.  De- 
tailed studies  of  thousands  of  farms  representing  all 
degrees  of  efficient  and  inefficient  management,  are 
made  by  what  is  known  as  the  '''survey  method." 
This  consists  of  obtaining  complete  records  of  the 
entire  business  for  one  or  many  years  of  practically 
all  the  farms  in  typical  areas  of  the  different  farm- 
ing regions.    In  this  way  it  is  Ica^nod  which  farms 

56 


Farm  Management.    Procuring  Farm  Hands    57 

are  making  a  profit  and  which  are  not,  and  the  profit- 
able and  unprofitable  enterprises  can  be  determined. 
It  is  also  possible  to  evolve  a  plan  of  management 
which  includes  only  the  best  practices,  and  while  it 
may  not  embody  any  new  or  original  ideas  is  based 
upon  the  fire-test  of  actual  experience. 

Some  of  the  more  important  factors  stulied  are: 

The  type  of  farming  best  adapted  to  varying  cli- 
matic, soil,  topographic  or  other  geographic  condi- 
tions, and  also  with  regard  to  market  demands  and 
facilities. 

The  best  size  of  farm  for  a  given  type  of  farm- 
ing, and  the  percentage  of  the  total  capital  which 
should  be  invested  in  buildings,  implements  and 
equipment,  livestock,  power,  etc. 

The  general  layout  of  the  farm,  that  is,  the  size 
and  arrangement  of  the  fields  and  the  location  of  the 
buildings  with  regard  to  efficiency  and  economy  in 
the  use  of  man  and  horse  labor,  as  well  as  adapta- 
tion to  the  rotation  of  crops  to  be  followed. 

The  best  rotation  to  practise,  considering  not  only 
the  soil  conditions  and  the  effects  of  rotation  on 
the  crop  yields,  but  also  the  market  for  the  different 
crops,  the  cost  of  hauling  them,  the  distribution  of 
man  and  horse  labor  with  relation  to  other  enter- 
prises, the  utilization  of  present  equipment,  the  re- 
quirements of  extra  equipment,  etc. 

The  size  and  character  of  the  machine  and  equip- 
ment, as  well  as  their  efficient  operation  and  care. 


58  Use  Your  Government 

The  cheapest  source  of  power  for  farm  operations, 
that  is,  whether  animal  or  mechanical  power  should 
be  used,  or  a  combination  of  both,  and,  if  the  latter, 
the  proper  proportion  of  each.  In  the  case  of  an- 
imal power,  the  cheapest  method  of  obtaining  work 
animals,  that  is,  whether  to  raise  or  buy,  and  the 
age  at  which  animals  should  be  sold  to  maintain 
the  depreciation  of  a  minimum  figure. 

The  most  profitable  methods  of  disposing  of  the 
different  crops,  that  is,  whether  to  harvest  and  sell 
or  to  feed  to  stock,  and  if  to  feed,  the  kind  of  stock 
to  which  they  should  be  fed  to  return  the  greatest 
profit ;  also  whether  they  can  be  fed  more  profitably 
in  the  field  without  harvesting  than  by  harvesting 
and  feeding  in  yards  or  stables. 

The  amount  of  different  kinds  of  live  stock  which 
should  be  kept,  considered  not  only  as  separate  en- 
terprises, but  with  relation  to  the  disposition  of  dif- 
ferent crops,  the  manure  requirements  of  the  farm, 
the  utilization  of  products  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted,  the  employment  of  labor,  etc. 

The  most  profitable  way  of  utilizing  manure,  con- 
sidering the  labor  involved  and  cost  of  equipment, 
as  well  as  the  effect  on  the  various  crops  in  a  rota- 
tion. 

The  conditions  under  which  renting  a  farm  is  more 
profitable  than  owning  one,  together  with  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of  different  forms  of 
tenure. 


Farm  Management.    Procuring  Farm  Hands    59 

All  of  these,  as  well  as  numerous  minor  factors, 
receive  careful  study  and  consideration  by  the  Office 
of  Farm  Management  in  organizing  a  farm  busi- 
ness in  accordance  with  the  laws  and  principles  of 
the  science  of  farm  management. 

In  connection  with  the  work  of  the  Office  simple 
cost  accounting  systems  have  been  worked  out  which 
require  a  very  small  amount  of  time  on  the  part 
of  the  farmer  but  which  furnish  the  necessary  data 
from  which  to  determine  the  cost  of  growing  vari- 
ous crops,  of  raising  different  kinds  of  livestock  and 
producing  live-stock  products  under  different  con- 
ditions. All  items  of  receipts  and  expenditures  in 
connection  with  the  farm  business,  also  the  labor 
requirements,  both  man  and  horse,  for  every  farm 
product,  is  likewise  ascertained.  Important  facts  as 
to  the  relative  efficiency  of  machines  and  implements 
of  different  sizes,  when  used  under  varying  condi- 
tions, are  also  disclosed.  Hundreds  of  farmers  from 
all  sections  of  the  country  are  keeping  such  records 
of  their  business  and  allowing  the  Office  of  Farm 
Management  to  make  copies  of  them.  These  rec- 
ords serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  survey  records 
referred  to  above.  They  also  serve  to  give  to  the 
farmers  who  keep  them  a  better  insight  into  their 
own  farm  business  than  they  had  before  possessed. 

In  1908  the  Government  decided  that  it  would  have 
to  assist  the  farmer  in  finding  the  help  he  needed. 


60  Use  Your  Government 

Department  The  Bureau  therefore  printed  10,000,000 
of  Labor,  post  cards  which  were  handed  to  the  mail 
carriers  in  the  rural  districts  all  over  the  country. 
It  was  a  double  card  with  answer  attached.  "If 
you  are  in  need  of  labor  in  any  form  of  any  kind — 
just  tell  us  on  the  attached  post  card,"  it  read. 
The  card  was  then  handed  back  to  the  mail  carrier 
and  the  Department  learned  in  detail  the  labor  wants 
of  farmers  over  the  entire  country. 

This  method  was  continued  until  1915,  when  the 
labor  zones  were  established.  (See  page  268.)  At 
this  time  the  employment  blanks  were  placed  in  all 
the  post  offices  with  notices  of  this  fact  posted  wher- 
ever feasible  and  in  each  post  office.  It  was  found 
that  this  method  saved  time,  for  both  the  workman 
in  want  of  a  job  and  the  farmer  in  need  of  labor 
saw  this  notice  and  could  on  request  obtain  a  blank 
on  which  to  state  their  requirements.  The  address 
of  the  ''Zone  Officer"  of  the  district  was  written  on 
every  blank  so  that  when  filled  out  it  could  be  mailed 
in  an  envelope  supplied  by  the  Government. 


Farm  Management    Procuring  Farm  Hands    61 


FARMERS 

AND 

OTHER  EMPLOYERS 


DO  YOU  NEED  HELP? 
MEN  AND  WOMEN-DO  YOU  WANT  WORK? 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 

fiUREAU   OP   IMMIGRATION 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C 

DIVISION  OF  INFORMATION 

ACTIMO  ALSO  AS 

DIVISION  OF  EMPLOYMENT  AND  DISTRiaUTION  OF  LAfiOO 


Forms  of  application  for  use  of  employers  desiring  help, 
and  for  persons  seeking  employment,  may  be  had  on  request 
from  the  postmaster  or  to  the  officer  in  charge  of  any  branch 
post  office  during  office  hours,  or  to  a  rural  mail  carrier. 

These  officers  are  not  required  to  fill  out  such  blanks. 

All  applications,  when  filled  out  and  signed,  should  be 
folded  and  returned  to  the  postmaster,  or  transmitted 
through  the  rural  mail  carrier;  or  through  the  officer  in 
charge  of  any  branch  post  office,  whereupon  they  will  be 
forwarded  to  the  proper  officer  of  the  Department  of  Labor. 
When  thus  returned  or  transmitted  no  postage  is  necessary; 
otherwise  the  usual  postage  will  be  required. 

This  service  is  free  to  employer  and  employee. 


Approved: 


(tanlV 


NOTICE  ISSUED  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR  CONCERN, 
ING  EMPLOYMENT  OF  FARM   HANDS 


CHAPTER  IX.— MARKETING.  REGULATORY 
MEASURES.  RURAL  ORGANIZATION 

Every  phase  of  marketing  and  rural  organization 
is  investigated  and  demonstrated  to  the  farmer. 

The  work  may  be  said  to  fall  under  the  following 
headings : 

I.    Investigations  and  demonstrations  regarding: 

(a)  Marketing  and  distributing  farm  products 

(b)  Food  supply 

(c)  Cooperative  marketing  work  in  various 
States 

(d)  Grain  standardization 

(e)  Cotton  standardization  and  testing 

II.    Reporting  services  regarding: 

(a)  The  supply,  commercial  movement,  mar- 
ket prices,  and  disposition  of  fruits  and 
vegetables,  livestock  and  meats,  grain, 
seed,  and  hay,  and  dairy  products. 

(b)  Cold  storage  holdings 

in.  Regulatory  work  in  connection  with  the  en- 
forcement of  the  Grain  Standards  Act,  U.  S. 
Cotton  Futures  Act,  Warehouse  Act,  and 
Standard  Container  Act. 

62 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    63 

{a)     MARKETING  AND  DISTRIBUTING  OF 
FARM  PRODUCTS 

Practical  experiments  are  constantly  being  made 
by  representatives  of  the  Bureau  of  Markets  all  over 
Bureau  of  the  country  with  regard  to  marketing 
Markets.  and  distribution  of  farm  products  in  or- 
der that  statements  and  recommendations  regarding 
this  matter  may  be  accurate  and  definite. 

These  experiments  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

Cooperative  Purchasing  and  Marketing 

Many  of  the  most  effective  economies  in  market- 
ing can  be  practised  only  by  very  large  individual 
producers  or  by  cooperative  association  of  growers, 
and  for  this  reason  this  Bureau  has  made  special 
study  of  the  subject  of  cooperative  marketing. 
There  are  in  existence  in  the  United  States  more  than 
10,000  organizations  of  persons  engaged  in  the  mar- 
keting and  distribution  of  farm  products  and  the 
purchasing  of  farm  supplies.  Many  of  these  asso- 
ciations are  not  well  organized  and  as  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  strengthening  them  as  possible,  per- 
sonal aid  being  rendered  wherever  practicable. 
Studies  are  conducted  in  order  to  determine  the 
basic  factors  necessary  to  the  successful  conduct 
of  such  cooperative  enterprises. 


64  Use  Your  Government 

Market  Business  Practise 

Poor  business  methods  have  been  responsible  for 
the  failure  of  many  farming  enterprises  and  this 
Bureau,  therefore,  has  made  studies  regarding  the 
business  practises  of  cooperative  and  farmers'  or- 
ganizations and  other  market  agencies  in  order  to 
devise  suitable  accounting  systems  and  efficient  meth- 
ods of  business  practise.  Uniform  systems  of  ac- 
counts for  primary  grain  elevators,  cooperative  live- 
stock shipping  associations,  country  creameries,  cot- 
ton warehouses,  fruit  and  produce  associations,  etc., 
have  been  devised  and  tried  out  in  actual  practise. 
These  accounting  systems  have  been  widely  adopted. 
More  than  1,100  farmers'  grain  ele\^ators  are  now 
using  the  system  devised  for  them.  Through  the 
use  of  this  system  it  has  been  possible  to  compile 
exhaustive  figures  showing  the  cost  of  operation  in 
175  elevators.  Constructive  assistance  is  rendered 
to  persons  using  the  accounting  systems  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Bureau,  who  respond  to  as  many 
calls  of  this  kind  as  possible. 

(The  Bureau  is  concerned  in  this  phase  of 
work  only  in  connection  with  farmers'  associa- 
tions. The  office  of  Farm  Management  is  con- 
cerned with  the  individual  farmer.  See  page 
56.) 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    65 

Market  Surveys,  Methods  and  Costs 

Surveys  are  conducted  by  this  project  to  show 
areas  of  surplus  production ;  dates  within  which  spe- 
cific areas  move  crops ;  usual  markets  to  which  crops 
are  shipped;  volume  of  movement;  the  consuming 
capacities  of  various  markets;  the  causes  of  price 
fluctuations;  reasons  of  market  preferences;  and 
like  matters.  As  a  result  of  the  studies  conducted 
under  this  project  the  data  was  obtained  for  use 
as  a  basis  for  conducting  the  reporting  service  on 
fruits  and  vegetables.    (See  page  83.) 

Practically  all  railroads,  boat  lines  and  express 
companies  handling  perishable  fruits  and  vegetables 
are  now  reporting  to  this  Bureau  each  carload  ship- 
ment of  such  commodities  which  are  made  over  their 
lines.  Regular  reports  are  received  from  approxi- 
mately 10,000  station  agents  on  about  500  transpor- 
tation lines  which  represent  approximately  250,000 
miles  out  of  a  total  mileage  of  260,000  possessed 
by  the  railroads  of  the  United  States.  These  re- 
ports cover  the  shipment  of  about  80  perishable 
commodities.  The  statistics  obtained  in  this  way 
will  be  compiled  to  show  shipments  by  states,  coun- 
ties and  shipping  points,  and  the  shipping  season  for 
each  county,  and  will  furnish  a  basis  for  semi-weekly 
and  weekly  bulletins  supplementing  the  telegraphic 
reports. 

Statistics  are  secured  showing  the  number  of  cars 


utirn-KTj 


EXPLANATI 

THIS  MAP  INDICATES  ACTUAL  SHIPMENTS  OF  FEESH  TO- 
DOT  KEPRESENTS  FIVE  CARS,  OR  FRACTION  THEREOF. 
THE  STATIONS  ARE  LOCATED,  THOUGH  PRODUCTION 
WHERE  SHIPMENTS  ARE  TOO  HEAVY  TO  BE  REPRE- 
IN  AND  THE   CARS  SHIPPED  GIVEN  IN  FIGURES. 

THE  DATES  WITHIN  WHICH  THE  VARIOUS  AREAS  SHIP  ARE 
PING  AT  A  GIVEN  PERIOD  BEING  GROUPED  IN  A  ZONE 


66 


^VMtt-itrr.t 


■^    ^*o)aiftJt 


"'  V- 

B-246.4 

ON  OF  MAP 

MATOES  TO  MAKKET  IN  THE  SEASON  OF  1914.  EACH 
THESE  DOTS  ARE  GROUPED  IN  THE  COUNTY  IN  WHICH 
DOES  NOT  ACTUALLY  FOLLOW  THE  COUNTY  LINES. 
SENTED  BY  DOTS  THE  COUNTIES  HAVE  BEEN  BLACKED 

SHOWN  BY  CURVED  LINES,  ALL  OF  THE  AREAS  SHIP- 
UNDER  THE  LINE  REPRESENTING  THAT  PERIOD. 


67 


68 


Use  Your  Government 


of  perishable  commodities  which  have  been  unloaded 
day  by  day  in  the  most  important  markets  of  the 
country.  These  statistics  will  show  (a)  the  produc- 
ing sections  supplying  each  city,  (b)  the  competition 
from  other  producing  sections,  (c)  the  consuming 

RECEIPTS  /Nb  Wholesale  Prices  per  EAfiftEL.m  new  York  city  of  York  imperial 
AND  Ben  Ovis  apples     Season   1905 — I9I0 


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January] 

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1.75  York  Imperial  Variety 

1.10  YORK  Imperial  variety 

lis  6EN  Davis  Variety 

t.a»  Ben  Oavis  variety 


-^  Shows  jLUCTUATtONS  or  riNEST  craDE 

— .«  ShOW.3  fLUCTUATIONS   or    ORDINARY  OH  *\  CRAOC 

—  Shows  FLUCTUATIONS  or  dnest  grade 

-—■  Shows  «xuctuations  or  ordinary  or  *\  cradc 


DIAGRAM  ISSUED  BY  THE  BUREAU  OF  MARKETS,  SHOWING 
RECEIPTS  AND   PRICES   OF   APPLES 

capacity  of  these  markets,   (d)  the  differences  in 
the  per  capita  consumption  in  different  cities. 


Market  Grades  and  Standards 

Standardization  is  fundamental  to  improvement  in 
marketing  as,  among  other  things,  it  establishes  a 
basis  for  trading,  makes  for  the  elimination  of  fraud 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    69 

and  prevention  of  waste,  creates  and  maintains  con- 
fidence, stabilizes  the  market,  and  encourages  bet- 
ter methods  in  producing  and  handling.  This  Bu- 
reau endeavors  to  develop  standards  for  fruits  and 
vegetables,  packages  and  containers,  and  to  encour- 
age growers  and  shippers  of  fruits  and  vegetables 
properly  to  prepare  their  products  for  market.  In- 
vestigations are  made  of  the  construction,  equip- 
ment and  management  of  fruit  and  vegetable  pack- 
ing houses,  the  use  of  mechanical  sizing  machines 
and  other  matters.  The  data  obtained  by  this  Bu- 
reau regarding  the  standardization  of  packages  and 
containers  were  used  in  connection  with  the  enact- 
ment of  the  Federal  law  concerning  this  subject 
which  went  into  effect  November  1, 1917.  (See  page 
90.) 

Specifications  have  been  prepared  for  apple  grades 
and  for  a  uniform  state  apple  grading  law,  which 
were  adopted  as  a  whole  or  in  part  by  several 
states.  The  necessary  work  has  been  conducted  to 
enable  the  Bureau  to  make  recommendations  con- 
cerning the  harvesting,  grading  and  packing  of 
peaches,  apples,  strawberries  and  onions,  and  for 
packing-house  plans,  equipment  and  general  meth- 
ods of  handling.  Grades  for  potatoes  have  been 
recommended,  and  have  been  widely  adopted. 
These  potato  grades  were  used  in  the  marketing 
of  the  1917  crop. 


70  Use  Your  Government 

Handling  Transportation  and  Storage 

Work  in  determining  the  factors  that  govern  the 
successful  handling,  transportation  and  storage  of 
fruits  and  vegetables  whereby  decay,  deterioration 
and  loss  may  be  prevented  has  recently  been  taken 
up  by  the  Bureau  of  Markets. 

However,  investigations  concerning  storage  and 
handling  have  for  some  time  been  carried  on  by  the 
Bureau  of  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  based  on  the 
Plant  idea  that  effective  storage  can  only  be 

Industry.  ^f  jjyg  fj-^its  and  vegetables.  The  Bu- 
reau, therefore,  studies  these  to  determine  the  con- 
dition under  which  such  products  can  be  successfully 
stored  and  handled  to  market. 

Based  on  this  scientific  and  technical  work,  there 
have  been  worked  out  practical  methods  for  the  ship- 
ping and  handling  of  many  agricultural  products. 
Advice  on  this  subject  is  given  to  the  farmers  in- 
terested, by  leaflets  and  circulars,  and  the  usual 
methods  of  spreading  information. 

It  is  evident  that  successful  storage  depends  a 
great  deal  on  the  storehouses  in  which  the  farmer, 
in  the  first  instance,  places  his  products,  concerning 
which  advice  is  also  given. 

Bureau  of  Extensive  investigations  also  have 
Chemistry,  been  carried  on  by  the  Bureau  of  Chem- 
istry with  regard  to  the  preservation  of  poultry  and 
eggs  and  their  products  for   the  purpose   of  de- 


Marketing.   Regulatory  Work.    Organization    71 

termining  the  conditions  under  whidi  they  should 
be  shipped;  the  question  has  been  studied  at  great 
length  from  the  killing  of  the  poultry  to  its  ship- 
ment. 

Transportation  conditions  have  been  thoroughly 
examined  and  practical  experiments  made  in  prepar- 
ing for  shipment,  devices  being  planned  to  determine 
the  cause  of  spoiling,  breakage,  etc. 

Elaborate  investigations  have  been  made  with  re- 
gard to  the  storage  of  poultry  and  eggs.  There  have 
been  examined  the  packing-house  methods  of  chill- 
ing poultry,  the  freezing  and  drying  of  eggs  and 
their  use  by  the  general  consumer,  bakers  and  oth- 
ers, in  order  to  save  waste  and  improve  quality. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  sends  out  its  demon- 
strators to  instruct  shippers,  carriers  and  others  in 
the  handling  of  poultry  and  eggs.  Meetings  are  held 
at  shipping  and  receiving  points  presided  over  by 
investigators  to  which  all  the  industry,  railroads 
agents,  etc.,  are  invited. 

Investigations  on  a  similar  important  scale  have 
been  made  with  regard  to  the  freezing,  transporta- 
tion and  handling  of  fish.  Concerning  this  industry, 
see  page  226. 

Studies  are  made  regarding  the  rela- 
Bureau  of  tion  between  the  farmer  and  the  rail- 
Markets  -^ay  companies  in  order  to  bring  about 
more  intelligent  and  sympathetic  cooperation 
between  shippers  and  carriers.    The  Bureau  un- 


72  Use  Your  Government 

dertakes  to  inform  carriers  as  to  the  needs  of 
shippers  and  to  give  to  shippers  a  better  under- 
standing of  their  rights,  duties  and  joint  responsi- 
bilities with  the  carriers  in  the  safe  and  economical 
transportation  of  their  products.  A  campaign  is 
carried  on  to  educate  shippers  regarding  the  use  of 
better  packages,  methods  of  harvesting,  packing  and 
loading,  in  order  to  reduce  the  great  loss  of  food- 
stuffs in  transit.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  en- 
courage the  more  effective  utilization  of  transpor- 
tation facilities,  to  reduce  damage  claims  by  induc- 
ing shippers  to  use  more  care  in  handling  and  ship- 
ping, and  to  bring  to  the  attention  of  railroads  the 
necessity  of  providing  more  adequate  transportation 
facilities. 

Investigations  are  conducted  regarding  the 
amount,  kind  and  location  of  all  available  storage 
space  in  the  country,  the  rates  charged  for  its  use, 
etc.  Endeavor  is  made  to  educate  people  to  the 
economic  value  of  cold  storage;  to  eradicate  the 
prejudice  against  foodstuffs  properly  preserved  by 
cold  storage;  and  to  develop  closer  cooperation  in 
the  utilization  of  the  cold  storage  facilities  of  the 
country  for  the  common  welfare  of  all  the  people 
in  the  more  efficient  conservation  of  the  country's 
food  supply.  (For  description  of  cold  storage  re- 
ports, see  page  88.) 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    73 

City  Marketing 

Much  of  the  waste  incident  to  the  present  methods 
of  marketing  farm  products  is  to  be  found  in  the 
inadequate  and  inefficient  methods  now  in  use  in 
various  cities. 

If  invited  to  do  so  by  a  city,  and  if  conditions  are 
regarded  as  sufficiently  typical,  this  Bureau  makes 
surveys  of  marketing  conditions  in  cities  in  order  to 
give  advice  and  suggestionsi  regarding  their  im- 
provement. In  these  surveys,  transportation,  con- 
ditions, demand  for  farm  products,  local  supply, 
etc.,  must  be  studied. 

Plans  are  prepared  for  market  building  and  mar- 
ket places  which,  upon  request,  are  modified  to  con- 
form to  conditions  in  different  cities.  Approved  sys- 
tems for  the  successful  administration  of  markets 
are  designed  and  model  regulations  are  formulated. 
Comparative  study  is  made  of  the  service,  prices 
and  overhead  expenses  of  various  agencies  and  of 
city  ordinances  relating  to  marketing  and  distribut- 
ing farm  products.  This  project  has  recently  in- 
augurated a  local  market  news  service  in  certain 
cities.  Agents  are  stationed  in  these  cities  to  record 
the  amount  of  each  locally  grown  product  brought 
to  market  each  morning,  and  post  total  figures  re- 
garding arrivals  at  as  early  an  hour  as  possible,  in 
order  that  they  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  buyers  and 
sellers.  They  secure  complete  information  regarding 


74  Use  Your  Government 

prices  obtained  for  various  products  and  prepare  a 
summary  regarding  these  matters  for  the  local 
press,  bringing  to  the  attention  of  the  public  prod- 
ucts which  are  in  greatest  supply. 

Marketing  by  Parcel  Post  and  Express 

Improved  facilities  for  selling  products  of  the 
farm  and  provisioning  the  home  have  been  eagerly 
sought  for  many  years.  This  work  was  instituted 
in  order  to  study  the  possibilities  of  marketing  from 
producer  to  consumer  direct,  and  it  has  been  found 
that  this  medium  of  communication  is  very  useful 
in  enabling  the  producer  to  dispose  of  small  quan- 
tities of  commodities  not  produced  in  commercial 
quantities.  A  study  was  made  of  shipping  eggs  by 
parcel  post  in  lots  of  less  than  15  dozen,  and  the 
conditions  for  their  successful  shipment  were  deter- 
mined. Experimental  shipments  by  parcel  post  also 
have  been  made  with  many  other  commodities.  Field 
studies  of  parcel  post  marketing  have  been  made  in 
certain  cities,  and  in  cooperation  with  the  Post  Office 
Department  campaigns  have  been  conducted  to  en- 
courage the  use  of  the  parcel  post  as  a  medium  of 
marketing  farm  products. 

Cotton  Handling  and  Marketing 

The  handling  and  marketing  of  cotton  have  been 
studied  in  order  to  improve  the  commercial  prac- 
tises surrounding  the  distribution  of  this  crop.  Pri- 


Cotton  Classification  Laboratory.  Final  Inspection  of  Cotton  Standards. 

Washington,  D.  C. 


A  complete  set  of  the  Official  Cotton  Standards  of  the  United  States         ^ 

for  American  White  Cotton. 


Marketing.   Regulatory  Work.    Organization    75 

mary  market  surveys  have  shown  that  the  price  gen- 
erally received  for  cotton  is  not  in  accordance  with 
its  quality,  but  is  based  upon  average  receipts.  This 
practise  penalizes  the  careful  grower  and  encour- 
ages careless  production.  Through  these  surveys  it 
was  possible  to  determine  the  quality  of  cotton  grown 
in  diiferent  sections  of  the  belt  and  the  methods 
of  handling  and  marketing  that  prevail  in  various 
sections.  The  organization  of  cooperative  associa- 
tions to  handle  cotton  in  even  running  commercial 
lots,  has  been  encouraged  and  assistance  has  been 
rendered  these  associations  in  grading  and  market- 
ing their  crop.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
seller  who  knows  the  class  of  his  cotton  obtains 
materially  better  prices  by  reason  of  such  knowl- 
edge, and  that  large  even  running  lots  bring  better 
prices  than  small  lots.  Investigations  have  revealed 
that  the  practise  of  selling  cotton  in  the  seed  re- 
sults in  enormous  loss  to  the  producer  and  has  a 
tendency  to  lower  the  quality  of  cotton  grown.  Pro- 
ducers have  been  urged  to  use  care  in  picking  and 
handling,  and  abandon  inferior  varieties.  Moisture 
tests  also  have  been  conducted  showing  the  moisture 
content  of  cotton  at  the  gin,  compress,  and  other 
concentration  points. 

Cotton  Warehouse  Investigations 

Investigations  made  by  this  Bureau  concerning 
cotton  warehousing  conditions  of  the  United  States 


76  Use  Your  Government  ] 

demonstrated  the  existence  of  ample  storage  space  i 
for  cotton,  but  showed  that  it  was  badly  distributed  | 
and  that  the  conditions  under  which  cotton  ware- 
houses are  constructed  and  operated  are  not  stand-  ; 
ardized.  Information  has  been  collected  regarding  j 
the  name,  location,  capacity,  construction  and  cost  \ 
of  cotton  warehouses  in  the  United  States,  insur-  : 
ance  rates,  charges,  loans,  and  interest  on  loans.  : 
In  addition  to  the  conduct  of  these  surveys  a  sys-  | 
tern  of  accounts  has  been  devised  for  the  use  of  i 
cotton  warehouses  (see  Market  Business  Practise,  j 
page  64),  and  studies  have  been  made  of  state  ware-  j 
house  laws  and  other  matters.  The  practicability  : 
of  determining  the  grade  of  cotton  from  gin  sam-  1 
pies  is  under  investigation.  If  it  could  be  dem-  ; 
onstrated  that  this  method  is  practicable  the  neces-  ; 
sity  for  cutting  the  covering  of  cotton  bales,  with  ! 
the  resultant  loss,  could  be  avoided.  Tests  are  made  I 
to  determine  to  what  extent  the  value  of  baled  cot-  J 
ton  is  affected  by  proper  protection  from  the  wea-  > 
ther  and  the  extent  to  which  such  cotton  is  damaged  : 
when  exposed.  | 

Marketing  Cotton  Seed  and  Its  Products  ^ 

The  present  methods  of  marketing  cotton  seed 
cause  enormous  waste.  If  the  large  amount  of  for- 
eign matter  now  found  in  this  commodity  could  be 
eliminated,  its  quality  would  be  improved  and  many 
freight  cars  now  engaged  in  hauling  trash  would 

^^ 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    77 

be  released  for  important  purposes.  The  presence 
of  the  foreign  matter  found  in  cotton  seed  not  only 
causes  greater  expenditures  for  transportation  than 
if  the  seed  were  clean,  but  damages  the  seed  ma- 
terially. Under  present  conditions,  the  seller  of 
cotton  seed  of  a  good  quality  often  obtains  no  more 
for  his  product  than  the  producer  of  inferior,  dirty 
seed,  which  penalizes  the  careful  grower.  The  Bu- 
reau of  Markets  is  urging  all  persons  connected  with 
the  distribution  of  cotton  seed  to  keep  it  clean  and 
dry,  and  adopt  practical  commercial  standards.  If 
the  present  inefficient  practises  in  connection  with 
marketing  of  this  crop  can  be  eliminated,  the  food 
and  feed  supply  of  the  country  will  be  materially 
increased. 

Marketing  Dairy  Products 

(For  dairy  investigation,  see  page  42.) 
The  development  of  the  dairy  industry  in  many 
sections  of  the  United  States  is  dependent  upon  the 
possibility  of  securing  a  satisfactory  market  and  the 
employment  of  market  methods  which  will  insure  the 
producers  a  profitable  return.  In  order  to  give  ad- 
vice and  assistance  the  Bureau  of  Markets  conducts 
investigational  work  regarding  the  marketing  of 
dairy  products  and  dairy  substitutes,  methods  and 
costs  of  preparing  such  products  for  market,  mar- 
ket grades  and  classification  of  daiiy  products,  etc. 
Valuable  information  has  been  obtained  by  means 


78  Use  Your  Government  \ 

of  surveys  of  the  conditions  surrounding  the  mar-  : 
keting  of  butter,  cheese  and  milk.  | 

The  results  of  the  investigations  conducted  by  ' 
this  project  have  been  used  in  inaugurating  the  re-  i 
porting  service  on  dairy  products  which  has  been  , 
commenced  under  the  emergency  fund.  j 

Marketing  Livestock  and  Meats  and  Animal 

By-products  \ 

1 
i 

(For  work  in  connection  with  livestock  see  page  | 
41.)  J 

The  live-stock  industry  is  one  of  the  most  impor-  I 
tant  food  product  industries  of  the  country,  and  . 
the  fact  that  the  meat  supply  of  the  nation  has  not  | 
kept  pace  with  its  growth,  makes  the  investigation  of  | 
this  subject  a  matter  of  great  importance.  The  i 
world's  present  shortage  of  meat  animals  further  i 
emphasizes  the  necessity  of  obtaining  adequate  in-  ; 
formation  on  this  subject.  : 

This  Bureau  studies  such  matters  as  the  methods  ' 
and  costs  of  marketing  live  stocks  and  meats,  the 
marketing  of  live  stock  in  the  South,  the  organiza- 
tion and  methods  of  cooperative  live-stock  shipping  ] 
associations  and  farmers'  cooperative  packing-  ; 
houses;  the  organized  facilities  and  methods  of  the  : 
centralized  markets  of  the  United  States ;  the  meth-  j 
ods  and  facilities  pertaining  to  wholesale  slaugh-  i 
tering  and  meat  packing;  the  wholesale  and  retail 


Shipping  day   of  Live  Stock  Shipping  Association.     Farmers  delivering 

and  unloading  stock. 


Engineer  engaged  in  "Water  Eesources  measurements  for  the  Geological 

Survey.     (See  page  222.) 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    79 

prices  of  meat,  and  the  distribution  of  packing- 
house products. 

The  investigational  work  done  in  this  condition 
has  constituted  a  basis  for  the  conduct  of  the  tele- 
graphic news  service  on  the  market  movement,  etc., 
of  live  stock  and  meats.    (See  page  84.) 

Marketing  Grain,  Seed  and  Hay 

Grain  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  crops 
of  the  country  and  under  conditions  which  are  con- 
stantly changing,  as  at  present,  the  need  for  ac- 
curate market  information  is  emphasized.  Studies 
are  made  of  such  matters  as  the  primary  and  ter- 
minal marketing  of  grain,  seed  and  hay,  including 
the  cost  of  marketing,  comparison  of  the  services 
rendered  by  independent  and  line  elevators  and  co- 
operative purchasing  and  selling  associations,  and 
other  agencies,  future  transactions  and  exchange 
practises,  scalping  prices,  market  quotations,  ex- 
port trade,  seed  stock  records,  and  other  matters. 

Foreign  Marketing  Investigations 

Work  under  this  heading  has  been  largely  prelim- 
inary owing  to  conditions  abroad.  As  a  result  of 
the  war,  foreign  trade  in  agricultural  products  has 
been  greatly  disturbed  and  upset  and  the  recon- 
struction period  undoubtedly  will  develop  many  new 
problems.  Special  study  must  be  made  of  the  for- 
eign marketing  of  various   commodities,   such  as 


80  Use  Your  Government 

grain,  grain  sorghums,  live  stock  and  meats,  fruit 
and  wool.  The  post-war  demand  for  dairy  products 
is  to  be  investigated  in  order  that  the  American 
industry  may  be  assisted  in  meeting  the  extensive 
demand  which  will  probably  ensue  as  the  result  of 
the  slaughter  of  European  herds.  Information  is  to 
be  obtained  regarding  the  cooperative  organization 
of  Europe  and  the  laws  under  which  they  have  been 
developed.  The  business  practises  of  such  organiza- 
tions and  other  marketing  agencies  under  both  open 
account  and  exception  transactions  should  be  stud- 
ied. 

(b)     FOOD  SUPPLY  INVESTIGATIONS 

The  information  obtained  through  these  investi- 
gations, which  have  been  instituted  recently,  are  to 
assist  in  answering  the  question,  ''Who  gets  the  con- 
sumer's dollar r'  These  investigations  should  form 
the  basis  for  constructive  economic  suggestions; 
should  disclose  abuses  and  unfair  practises;  and 
should  confirm  or  dispel  the  suspicion  that  unfair 
practises  prevail  in  our  system  of  marketing  and 
distributing  farm  products.  For  the  present  the 
scope  of  this  work  will  be  confined  to  live  stock  and 
meats,  and  the  most  important  food-producing 
grains.  Effort  will  be  made  to  show  the  character 
and  cost  of  the  services  rendered  and  the  profits  re- 
ceived by  various  agencies  handling  farm  products 
in  their  progress  from  producer  to  consumer,  and 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    81 

to  determine  the  cost  of  production  on  the  farm. 
If  undue  profits  appear  to  be  made  by  any  one 
factor,  an  effort  will  be  made  to  determine  whether 
they  are  the  result  of  unhindered  economic  laws  or 
manipulation  and  artificial  control. 

(c)    COOPERATIVE   MARKETING   WORK   IN 
VARIOUS  STATES 

This  work  is  carried  on  in  cooperation  with  cer- 
tain states  which  have  appropriated  money  for  mar- 
keting purposes.  Field  agents  are  stationed  in  va- 
rious states  and  are  jointly  employed  by  the  states 
and  the  Bureau  of  Markets.  These  agents  direct 
all  of  the  marketing  work  undertaken  in  the  state 
in  which  they  are  stationed.  There  are  always  a 
large  number  of  problems  which  are  peculiar  to 
each  state  and  it  has  been  found  that  they  can  be 
best  solved  by  some  one  thoroughly  familiar  with 
local  conditions  and  possessing  the  viewpoint  of  the 
community.  A  number  of  state  legislatures  recently 
have  created  bureaus  of  markets,  and  in  practically 
all  cases  have  provided  that  the  work  is  to  be  done 
in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  At  present  work  of  this  kind  is 
conducted  in  over  twenty  states. 

(d)     GRAIN  STANDARDIZATION 

Investigations  are  being  made  by  this  Bureau  to 
determine  the  basis  for  the  standardization  of  grain. 


82  Use  Your  Government 

(See  also  United  States  Grain  Standards  Act,  page 
88.)  Standards  for  shelled  corn  and  wheat  estab- 
lished as  a  result  of  these  investigations  are  now 
being  enforced  in  connection  with  the  United  States 
Grain  Standards  Act.  Standards  for  oats  probably 
will  be  fixed  so  as  to  be  used  in  grading  the  1918 
crop.  In  connection  with  this  work  experiments  are 
made  in  the  control  of  smut  dust  and  to  ascertain  the 
milling  and  baking  qualities  of  grain  and  other  mat- 
ters. 

(e)  COTTON  STANDARDIZATION  AND 
COTTON  TESTING 

In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  United 
States  Cotton  Futures  Act  (see  page  89),  standards 
for  grade  of  white  and  for  colored  cotton  have  been 
established  and  promulgated.  The  official  cotton 
standards  of  the  United  States  have  been  obtained 
from  the  Department  by  cotton  exchanges,  cotton 
firms,  cotton  mills,  and  other  branches  of  the  trade 
in  this  and  in  foreign  countries.  Demonstrations 
are  made  to  show  the  value  of  these  standards  and 
promote  their  use,  and  studies  are  made  regarding 
their  adaptability  to  trade  conditions  and  other  mat- 
ters. Steps  are  being  taken  to  prepare  standards 
for  Arizona  cotton,  Egyptian  cotton,  Sea  Island  cot- 
ton, and  standards  for  length  of  staples,  and  the  sub- 
ject of  preparing  standards  for  cotton  of  perished 
staple,   immature   staple,   ginned   cotton,   reginned 


Marketing,    Regulatory  Work,    Organization    83 

cotton  and  for  cotton  linters  is  being  considered. 
Manufacturing  tests  have  been  made  to  determine 
the  waste,  tensile  strength,  bleaching,  mercerization 
and  other  qualities  possessed  by  the  different  grades, 
classes  and  varieties  of  upland  and  staple  cottons 
in  order  to  determine  their  commercial  and  manufac- 
turing values. 

11.    REPORTING  SERVICE 

(a)  The  following  periodical  reports  are  issued  by 
the  Bureau  of  Markets: 

Any  series  of  these  reports  will  be  sent  free  of 
charge  to  all  persons  who  show  a  need  of  them, 
upon  receipt  of  request.  Telegraphic  reports  will 
be  sent  ''collect." 

Fruits  and  Vegetables 

Daily  Market  Reports  of  Perishable  Fruits  and 
Vegetables.  These  reports  are  issued  from  perma- 
nent stations  in  most  of  the  more  important  markets 
and  from  numerous  temporary  field  stations  in  va- 
rious producing  areas  during  crop  movement.  They 
contain : 

1.  Telegraphic  reports  from  all  principal  mar- 
kets giving  the  number  of  cars  of  each  com- 
modity unloaded  daily,  the  origin  of  these  com- 
modities, prevailing  jobbing  prices,  quality  and 
condition  of  receipts,  and  marketing  and  weath- 
er conditions. 


84  Use  Your  Government 

2.  Telegraphic  reports  from  all  railroads  han- 
dling the  crops  in  question,  giving  shipments 
from  each  state  or  district  up  to  midnight  of 
the  night  before, 

3.  Numerous  f.  o.  b.  prices  from  the  Bureau's 
representatives  in  producing  territory. 

Weekly  Carlot  Summaries.  These  reports  give 
the  total  number  of  cars  shipped  from  each  state 
by  days  and  weeks,  as  reported  telegraphically  daily 
to  this  Bureau  by  the  transportation  companies. 
(Of  primary  interest  to  newspapers  and  statistical 
students.) 

Weekly  Market  Review.  This  review  summarizes 
the  trend  of  shipments  and  market  prices  for  per- 
ishable fruits  and  vegetables  as  given  in  the  daily 
telegraphic  reports.  (Of  primary  interest  to  news- 
papers and  trade  papers.) 

Livestock  and  Meats 

Daily  Market  Reports  on  Meat  Trade  Conditions. 
These  reports  show  prices,  supply,  demand  and 
trend  of  the  market  for  beef,  veal,  pork,  lamb  and 
mutton  in  Boston,  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  and 
Washington,  D.  C.  They  are  issued  early  each  morn- 
ing from  local  offices  of  the  Bureau  at  those  points 
and  at  Chicago,  Fort  Worth,  Kansas  City,  Omaha, 
and  Portland,  Oregon. 

Daily  Market  Reports  on  Wholesale  Meat  Prices. 
For  western  dressed  beef,  mutton  and  lamb  in  Bos- 


Marketing.    Regulator!/  Work.    Organization    85 

ton,  New  York  City,  Philadelphia  and  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Daily  Reports  on  Live  Stock  Loadings.  These  re- 
ports show  the  number  of  cars  of  each  kind  of  live 
stock  loaded  the  day  previous  in  the  United  States 
west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  classified  by  des- 
tinations, also  tabulated  by  state  origins  for  a  num- 
ber of  the  larger  market  centers.  The  loading  re- 
ports are  issued  early  each  morning  from  the  same 
oflBces  which  issue  reports  on  meat  trade  condi- 
tions. 

Weekly  Summary  of  Meat  Trade  Conditions.  Bul- 
letins are  issued  on  each  Saturday  morning  giving 
a  review  of  market  supplies,  demands,  and  prices 
of  beef,  veal,  pork,  lamb  and  mutton  at  Boston,  New 
York  City,  Philadelphia  and  Washington,  D.  C.  They 
are  distributed  from  the  above  named  local  offices. 

Monthly  Receipts  of  Live  Stock  at  Stock  Yards. 
Bulletins  are  issued  shortly  after  the  first  of  each 
month  showing  the  receipts  during  the  preceding 
month  of  cattle,  hogs,  sheep  and  horses  at  some  60 
stock  yards  representing  over  50  cities.  They  are 
transmitted  to  the  above  mentioned  local  offices  by 
leased  wire  and  released  simultaneously  from  all  of- 
fices. 

Monthly  Shipments  of  Stockers  and  Feeders. 
These  reports,  which  are  issued  shortly  after  the 
first  of  each  month,  show  the  number  of  head  of  cat- 
tle and  sheep  shipped  during  the  preceding  month 


86  Use  Your  Government 

from  some  25  market  centers  for  feeding  and  grazing 
purposes. 

Wool 

Quarterly  Reports  on  the  Supply  of  Wool.  These 
reports  show  the  supply  on  hand  June  30,  Septem- 
ber 30,  December  31  and  March  31,  of  all  classes 
and  grades  of  wool,  top  and  noils,  both  foreign  and 
domestic.  The  data  also  are  tabulated  by  states  and 
by  cities.  The  first  report  was  issued  as  of  June 
30,  1917. 

Dairy  Products  and  Oleomargarine 

Monthly  Reports  on  Manufactured  Dairy  Prod- 
ucts and  Oleomargarine.  These  reports  show  the 
quantity  of  butter,  cheese,  condensed  milk  and  other 
dairy  products,  as  well  as  oleomargarine,  manufac- 
tured in  each  State,  and  the  production  for  the  cor- 
responding month  of  the  previous  year.  The  first 
report  covers  the  month  of  September,  1917. 

Grain  and  Hay 

Biweekly  Grain  and  Hay  Market  Reports.  These 
reports  are  issued  biweekly  for  the  Middle  Atlantic 
Division,  which  includes  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  South  Car- 
olina. They  show  stocks  on  hand,  prevailing  prices 
and  demand  for  wheat,  corn,  oats  and  hay.  Special 
reports  on  other  grains  and  market  conditions  usu- 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    87 

ally  accompany  these  reports.  Similar  reports  will 
be  issued  for  the  North  Atlantic,  Southeastern  and 
Southwestern  Divisions  beginning  November  15, 
1917.     (This  is  being  considered.) 

Seeds 

Monthly  Seed  Information  Bulletin.  This  bulle- 
tin will  be  issued  each  month  and  at  such  other  times 
as  may  seem  desirable.  It  will  give  information  re- 
garding receipts,  shipments,  prices,  qualities,  supply 
of  and  demand  for  seeds  obtained  through  the  Seed 
Reporting  Service.  It  will  report  the  official  activ- 
ities of  the  Department  Seed  Stocks  Committee,  and 
will  contain  seed  information  from  other  branches 
of  the  Department. 

Beans 

Semiweehly  Market  Reports  on  Dry  Beans.  A 
special  semiweekly  market  news  service  on  dry 
beans,  including  navy,  pinto  and  related  varieties, 
was  inaugurated  October  3,  1917,  and  reports  are 
issued  Wednesday  and  Saturday  of  each  week.  Job- 
bing and  carlot  prices  as  well  as  arrivals  are  ob- 
tained from  the  following  markets :  Pittsburgh,  Chi- 
cago, Boston,  New  York  City,  Buffalo,  Philadelphia, 
Fort  Worth,  Dallas,  Denver,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City, 
and  Rochester.  The  reports  also  cover  shipping 
point  information  in  Colorado  and  New  York. 


88 


Use  Your  Government 


(b)  Monthly  Reports  Showing  Cold  Storage  Hold- 
ings of  the  following  perishable  commodities  in  the 
United  States  are  being  issued : 


Box  apples 
Barrel  apples 
Case  eggs 
Frozen  eggs 
American  cheese 
Creamery  butter 
Packing  stock  butter 
Frozen  beef 
Cured  beef 
Frozen  pork 


Dry  salt  pork 

Sweet  pickled  pork 

Lard 

Lamb  and  mutton 

Broilers 

Roasters 

Fowls 

Turkeys 

Miscellaneous  poultry 

Frozen  fish  (25  classes) 


III.    REGULATORY  WORK 

Regulatory  measures  in  connection  with  market- 
ing are  the  following: 

Grain  Standards  Act 

The  enforcement  of  the  United  States  Grain 
Standards  Act  involves  the  fixing  of  standards  for 
Bureau  of  grain,  and  the  promulgation  of  rules 
Markets.  and  regulations  for  the  enforcement  of 
the  Act;  the  issuance  of  licenses  to  persons  qual- 
ified to  inspect  and  grade  grain,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  their  competence ;  the  hearing  and  determina- 
tion of  disputes  which  are  referred  to  the  Secre- 
tary under  this  Act;  and  the  supervision  of  the 


Marketing,   Regulatory  Work.   Orgamzation    89 

inspection  of  grain  in  order  to  secure  the  accurate 
application  of  the  official  grain  standards.  As  men- 
tioned under  Grain  Standardization  (page  81) 
standards  have  been  fixed  for  shelled  corn  and 
wheat,  and  probably  shortly  will  be  fixed  for 
oats. 

For  the  purpose  of  administering  this  Act  the 
country  has  been  divided  into  35  supervising  dis- 
tricts with  a  supervisor  and  headquarters  in  each 
district. 

Cotton  Futures  Act 

The  enforcement  of  the  Cotton  Futures  Act  in- 
volves the  fixing  of  standards  for  cotton  (see  Cot- 
ton Standardization,  page  82),  and  the  promulga- 
tion of  rules  and  regulations  under  which  the  Act 
is  enforced;  the  hearing  and  determination  of  dis- 
putes as  to  the  grade,  quality,  and  length  of  staple 
of  cotton,  tendered  in  settlement  of  future  con- 
tracts made  in  compliance  with  this  Act;  the  in- 
vestigation of  future  markets  for  cotton  to  ascer- 
tain how  accurately  their  future  quotations  reflect 
spot  values,  and  other  matters;  and  the  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  practical  forms  of  the  stand- 
ards fixed  and  promulgated.  As  mentioned  under 
Cotton  Standardization  (see  page  82),  standards 
have  been  fixed  for  grade  of  white  and  for  colored 
cotton.  Fifteen  cities  have  been  named  as  bona  fide 
spot  markets  and  eleven  of  these  are  used  for  ob- 


90  Use  Tour  Government  I 

i 
taming  commercial  differences  as  required  by  the  ; 

Cotton  Futures  Act.  \ 

i 

United  States  Warehouse  Act  \ 

This  act  differs  from  the  cotton  futures,  grain  i 
standards,  and  standard  container  laws  in  that  it  is  | 
permissive — not  mandatory.  Its  main  purpose  is  to  ' 
establish  a  form  of  warehouse  receipts  for  cotton,  ; 
grain,  wool,  tobacco,  and  flaxseed,  and  to  make  these  ; 
receipts  easily  and  widely  negotiable  as  delivery  or-  ; 
ders  or  as  collateral  for  loans.  The  work  in  con-  i 
nection  with  its  administration  involves  the  inspec-  j 
tion  and  classification  of  warehouses  applying  for  j 
licenses  and  the  licensing  of  those  found  suitable  for  j 
the  proper  storage  of  cotton,  grains,  flaxseed,  wool, 
and  tobacco ;  the  licensing  of  persons  qualified  to  act 
as  warehousemen  under  this  Act,  the  duties  of  ware- 
housemen and  the  conditions  of  the  bond  required  ■ 
of  them  must  be  prescribed.  Rules  and  regulations  I 
under  which  this  Act  will  be  administered,  with  re-  | 
spect  to  cotton,  are  now  being  formulated.  ■; 

Standard  Container  Act  \ 

This  Act  became  effective  November  1,  1917,  its  j 
object'being  to  fix  standards  for  Climax  baskets  for  ; 
grapes,  and  other  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  to  fix  ; 
standards  for  baskets  and  other  containers  for  i 
small  fruits,  berries  and  vegetables.  Rules  and  reg-  ! 
ulations  for  the  enforcement  of  this  Act  have  been  ' 


Marketing.    Regulatory  Work.    Organization    91 

established  and  promulgated.  Under  it,  it  is  un- 
lawful to  manufacture  for  shipment  in  interstate 
commerce,  or  to  ship  in  interstate  commerce  either 
empty  or  filled  containers  which  do  not  comply  with 
its  provisions. 

It  is  thought  that  this  act  will  do  much  to  dem- 
onstrate short  measure  packages  and  voluntary  com- 
pliance with  its  provisions  will  be  obtained  as  a  re- 
sult of  educational  work  conducted  by  the  Depart- 
ment, trade  papers,  package  manufacturers  and  oth- 
ers. 

The  Bureau  of  Markets  has  cooperated  with 
state  and  local  agencies  in  the  conduct  of  social  and 
Bureau  of  economic  surveys  regarding  rural  organ- 
Markets,  izations  in  local  communities  for  a  num- 
ber of  states  and  has  prepared  survey  blanks  suit- 
able for  such  investigation,  which  will  be  supplied 
upon  request. 

The  Bureau  has  issued  bulletins  discussing  the 
principles  and  practises  of  successful  rural  organi- 
zation. It  has  also  prepared  articles  and  by-laws  for 
farmers'  community  clubs  organized  for  the  discus- 
sion of  problems  of  general  community  interest — 
both  social  and  economic. 

A  study  has  been  made  regarding  the  social,  ed- 
ucational, and  recreational  features  of  community 
and  county  fairs,  with  a  view  to  suggesting  improve- 
ments in  the  organization  and  arrangement  of  such 
fairs. 


92  Use  Your  Government  \ 

The  Bureau  of  Markets  has  also  made  a  study  J 

j 

of  rural  social  center  activities.    Rural  community 
buildings  have  been  studied  at  length  and  valuable   ! 
information  obtained  with  reference  to  the   cost,  \ 
financing,  maintenance,  management,  and  activities 
of  such  building  enterprises  in  various  parts  of  the  \ 
country.  | 


CHAPTER  X.    FARM  FINANCE 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  for  some  years 
prior  to  1916  conducted  extensive  investigations  re- 
Federal  garding  conditions  and  facilities  for 
Farm  Loan  farm  mortgage  credits  in  the  United 
Bureau.         States.     The  result  of  these  investiga- 

TheTreas-     tions  were  published  with  detailed  dia- 
ury 

grams  showing  the  rates  of  interest  and 

commissions  throughout  the  various  states. 

Two  commissions  appointed  to  investigate  condi- 
tions bearing  on  cooperative  farm  credits  in  Euro- 
pean countries  made  reports  and  recommendations 
to  Congress  with  reference  to  congested  legislation. 
With  the  aid  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  above-mentioned  commission,  there  was  passed 
on  the  17th  of  July,  1916,  the  Federal  Farm  Loan 
Act,  which  established  a  system  of  twelve  Federal 
Land  Banks,  as  follows  : 

District  1.  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Isl- 
and, New  Jersey,  New  York. 

BANK  at  SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 

District  2.  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Virginia,  Delaware,  Maryland,  District  of  Co- 
lumbia. 

93 


OmcRftM  A.      FARM  MORTCncE  LOANS 
■/WEKACE  RATES  FOR  INTEREST  MD  COMMISSidH 


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DIAGRAM  SHOWING  EATES  OP  INTEREST  IN  THE  VARIOUS  j 

STATES.  'j 


M 


Farm  Finance  95 

BANK  at  BALTIMORE,  MD. 

District  3.     North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida. 

BANK  at  COLUMBIA,  S.  C. 

District   4.    Tennessee,    Kentucky,    Indiana, 
Ohio. 

BANK  at  LOUISVILLE,  KY. 

District  5.    Louisiana,  Mississippi,  Alabama. 
BANK  at  NEW  ORLEANS,  LA. 

District  6.    Illinois,  Missouri,  Arkansas. 
BANK  at  ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

District  7.    North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Wis- 
consin, Michigan. 

BANK  at  ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

District   8.    South    Dakota,   Wyoming,    Ne- 
braska, Iowa. 

BANK  at  OMAHA,  NEBRASKA. 

District  9.    Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Kansas, 
Oklahoma. 

BANK  at  WICHITA,  KANS. 

District  10.    Texas. 

BANK  at  HOUSTON,  TEXAS 

District  11.    California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Ari- 
zona. 

BANK  at  BERKELEY,  CAL. 

District  12.    Washington,  Montana,  Oregon, 
Idaho. 

BANK  at  SPOKANE,  WASH. 


96  Use  Your  Government 

According  to  this  Act  farmers  desiring  loans  are 
required  to  become  members  of  local  national  Farm 
Loan  Associations.  However,  every  farmer  in  the 
United  States  is  included  in  the  territory  of  one 
of  the  above  mentioned  twelve  Federal  Land  Banks. 
Every  farmer,  therefore,  will  have  access  to  a  loan 
under  the  Act,  provided  he  complies  with  the  con- 
ditions provided  by  the  law.  The  Federal  Land 
Bank  system  is  designed  as  far  as  possible  to  do 
away  with  the  old  farm  mortgage  system,  under 
which  the  borrower  often  paid  excessive  rates  of 
interest  and  commissions,  with  additional  charges. 

Under  the  system  of  the  Federal  Land  Banks  no 
loan  is  permitted  at  a  rate  of  interest  exceeding 
six  per  cent.  The  rate  of  interest  charged  the  bor- 
rower must  not  exceed  by  more  than  one  per  cent, 
the  interest  paid  on  bonds  which  the  Federal  Land 
Banks  are  authorized  to  issue.  Not  only  is  the 
rate  of  interest  limited  to  six  per  cent.,  but  provision 
is  also  made  so  that  the  farmer  escapes  the  annoy- 
ance and  expense  of  bonuses  and  commissions. 

The  actual  rate  of  interest  charged  the  farmer 
for  the  first  year  is  at  a  uniform  rate  of  five  per 
cent. 

Under  the  law  these  loans  are  to  be  made  in 
periods  of  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  forty 
years.  In  actual  practise  this  is  usually  thirty-six 
years. 

Each  loan  must  make  provision  for  annual  or 


Farm  Finance 


97 


semi-annual  payments  on  its  principal  so  calculated 
that  the  debts  will  be  entirely  paid  at  the  end  of  the 
period.  After  a  loan  has  run  for  five  years  the 
borrower  is  given  the  option  of  paying  any  addi- 
tional sum  on  the  principal  in  multiples  of  $25.00 
on  any  interest  date.  The  following  table  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the  debt  is  paid 
off.     It  shows  the  annual  payments  applied  on  a 


Interest  at  5  per  cent. 

Completed  years 

Payment 

Interest 

Applied 

on 
principal 

Principal 

still 

unpaid 

1 

$80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 

80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 

80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 

80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.24 
80.33 

$50.00 

48.49 
46.90 
45.23 
43.48 

41.65 
39.72 
37.69 
35.56 
33.33 

30.98 
28.52 
25.93 
23.22 
20.37 

17.37 

14.23 

10.93 

7.46 

3.83 

$30.24 
31.75 
33.34 
35.01 
36.76 

38.59 
40.52 
42.55 
44.68 
46.91 

49.26 
51.72 
54.31 
57.02 
59.87 

62.87 
66.01 
69.31 
72.78 
76.50 

$969.76 

2 

938.01 

3 

904.67 

4 

869.66 

5 

832.90 

6... 

7 

794.31 

753.79 

8 

711.24 

9 

666.56 

10 

619.65 

11 

570.39 

12 

518.67 

13 

464.36 

14 

407.34 

15 

347.47 

16 

284.60 

17 

218.59 

18 

149.28 

19 

76.50 

20 

Total 

$1,604.89 

$604.89 

$1,000.00 

98  Use  Your  Government 

loan  of  $1,000.00,  running  for  a  period  of  twenty 
years  with  interest  at  five  per  cent. 

This  method  of  repaying  loans  has  a  two-fold  ad- 
vantage. It  encourages  the  borrower  in  habits  of 
thrift,  through  the  requirement  of  a  systematic  plan 
of  paying  off  his  debts,  and  at  the  same  time  it 
makes  it  possible  to  place  the  farmer's  loan  at  a 
lower  rate  of  interest.  The  gradual  reduction  of 
the  principal  constantly  improves  the  security  for 
the  balance. 

These  loans  under  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Act 
in  many  cases  assist  tenants  and  other  landless  men 
in  the  purchase  of  farms.  For  a  loan  amounting 
to  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  farm  may  be 
obtained  on  conditions  which  make  it  possible  for 
the  borrower  to  repay  the  indebtedness  out  of  the 
farm  income.  Many  farmers  will  find  it  advanta- 
geous by  reason  of  the  better  terms  offered  to  bor- 
row money  under  the  new  system  in  order  to  pay 
off  their  existing  indebtedness.  Other  farmers  will 
be  enabled  to  make  needed  improvements  which 
they  have  hesitated  to  undertake  before  on  account 
of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  loans  on  acceptable 
terms. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  loan  from  a  Federal  Land 
Bank  the  borrower  must  agree  to  use  the  proceeds 
of  the  loan  for  one  or  more  of  certain  objects  speci- 
fied in  the  Act:  for  the  purchase  of  land  for  agri- 
cultural use,  for  equipment,  fertilizer,  and  live  stock 


Farm  Finance  99 

for  the  land  mortgaged;  for  buildings  and  other 
permanent  improvements  on  the  said  land ;  or,  with 
certain  limitations,  for  the  payment  of  indebted- 
ness. 

The  borrower  must  furnish  as  security  a  first 
mortgage  on  farm  land.  The  amount  of  the  loan 
must  not  be  less  than  $100.00  nor  more  than  $10,- 
000.00.  The  loan  must  not  exceed  fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  appraised  value  of  the  farm  lands,  and  twenty 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  pennanent  improve- 
ments adequately  insured.  The  borrower  must  be 
engaged  or  abbut  to  be  engaged  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  farm  mortgaged. 

He  will  also  be  required  ordinarily  to  become  a 
member  of  a  local  National  Farm  Loan  Association. 

In  order  to  form  a  local  National  Farm  Loan  As- 
sociation the  following  steps  are  required : 

At  least  ten  prospective  borrowers  are  necessary 
in  order  to  organize  a  local  National  Farm  Loan 
Association.  The  aggregate  amount  which  they  wish 
to  borrow  must  not  be  less  than  $20,000.00.  Every 
member  is  required  to  subscribe  for  shares  of  stock 
in  the  association  ($5.00  shares)  equal  in  amount  to 
five  per  cent,  of  his  proposed  loan. 

Each  association  has  a  board  of  not  less  than 
five  directors,  which  board  elects  a  president,  a  vice- 
president,  a  secretary-treasurer,  and  a  loan  commit- 
tee of  three  members.  These  officers,  except  the 
secretary-treasurer,  must  be  part  of  the  association. 


100  Use  Your  Government 

The  Federal  Farm  Loan  Board  will  supply  model 
forms  for  articles  of  association  and  by-laws,  appli- 
cation blanks  for  loans,  and  other  necessary  papers. 
After  the  articles  of  the  association  are  signed  by  the 
members  they  must  be  forwarded  to  the  Federal 
Land  Bank  of  the  district.  These  articles  of  asso- 
ciation must  be  accompanied  by  a  written  report 
of  the  loan  committee,  such  committee  having  pre- 
viously appraised  the  farm  land  security  offered  by 
each  member,  and  having  duly  indicated  its  approval 
on  the  application  blank  of  each  member. 

The  Loan  Association  is  required  to  subscribe 
for  shares  of  stock  ($5.00  shares)  in  the  Federal 
Land  Bank  equal  in  amount  to  its  own  shares,  and 
this  subscription  for  stock  in  the  Federal  Land 
Bank  must  accompany  the  other  papers. 

After  a  Federal  Land  Bank  has  received  such 
articles  of  association  with  the  accompanying  affi- 
davit and  stock  subscription,  the  directors  of  the 
said  Federal  Land  Bank  are  required  by  law  to  send 
an  appraiser  to  investigate  the  solvency  and  char- 
acter of  the  applicants,  and  the  value  of  their  lands, 
and  to  determine  whether  in  their  judgment  a  char- 
ter should  be  granted  to  the  Association.  If  the 
decision  of  the  directors  of  the  land  bank  is  unfa- 
vorable, the  charter  will  be  refused.  If  their  de- 
cision is  favorable,  the  charter  will  be  granted  by 
the  Federal  Farm  Loan  Board,  unless  good  cause 
can  be  shown  for  refusing  it. 


Farm  Finance  101 

Each  Federal  Land  Bank  will  be  an  institution 
upon  which  the  farmers  of  the  district  can  rely 
at  all  times  as  a  source  for  mortgage  loans,  pro- 
vided they  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  law. 
To  this  institution  the  farmer  can  turn  for  loans, 
not  only  in  normal  times,  when  there  is  a  relatively 
good  opportunity  for  obtaining  investment  capital, 
but  also  in  times  of  stringency  when  even  the  farm- 
er with  well  established  ^credit  often  finds  it  dif- 
ficult to  obtain  loans  on  reasonable  terms. 

The  Government  has  made  extensive  investiga- 
tions relating  to  the  factors  affecting  interest  rates 
and  other  charges  on  short-time  farm  loans.  The 
results  of  these  investigations  were  published  in 
bulletin  form  and  tables  were  given  showing  inter- 
est rates  and  other  charges  on  short-time  loans  by 
states  and  districts  as  well  as  for  the  country  on 
the  whole.  These  showed  that  climate  and  soil  exert 
a  relatively  permanent  influence  upon  the  interest 
rate  and  other  charges. 

The  Government  has  endeavored  to  encourage  im- 
provement in  the  farmer's  personal  credit,  partly 
by  amending  existing  banking  laws,  and  partly  by 
educational  and  demonstration  work.  A  special 
clause  was  included  in  the  Federal  Reserve  Act, 
which  permitted  a  Federal  Reserve  Bank  to  dis- 
count longer  time  paper  for  agricultural  purposes 
than  is  allowed  in  the  case  of  commercial  or  indus- 
trial paper.    The  reason  for  this  is  the  following: 


102  Use  Your  Government 

The  financing  of  agricultural  enterprises  is  known 
to  acquire  longer  time,  on  the  average,  than  that  of 
ordinary  commercial  transactions.  Thus,  whereas 
commercial  and  industrial  paper  is  usually  made 
out  for  thirty,  sixty  or  ninety  days,  agriculturrl 
paper  more  often  runs  for  a  longer  period  owing  to 
the  seasonal  character  of  agricultural  enterprises. 
Federal  Eeserve  Banks  are  authorized  to  redis- 
count certain  kinds  of  notes,  drafts,  and  bills  of  ex- 
change, When  endorsed  by  member  banks.  When 
such  paper  is  for  agricultural  purposes,  or  is  based 
on  live  stock,  it  may  be  accepted  for  rediscount  pro- 
vided it  runs  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  six  months. 
However,  all  paper  for  commercial  and  industrial 
purposes  must  have  a  maturity  not  exceeding  nine- 
ty days,  in  order  to  be  eligible  to  rediscount. 

The  importance  of  the  rediscount  privilege 
through  Federal  Reserve  Banks  lies  in  providing 
such  paper  with  a  wider  market  than  is  afforded  by 
local  banks. 

Bureau  of  The  Federal  Government  carries  on 
Markets.  investigations  and  demonstration  work 
for  the  improvement  of  the  farmer's  personal  credit. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  through  its  Bu- 
reau of  Markets  has  suggested  articles  of  agree- 
ment for  farmers  who  desire  to  improve  their  credit 
through  organization. 

In  some  cases  where  conditions  are  feasible  the 


Farm  Finance  103 

department  has  prepared  to  give  active  field  assist- 
ance in  organization  for  credit  improvement. 

Two  general  methods  of  organization  recommend- 
ed may  be  noted: 

That  of  temporary  agreements  with  existing  loan 
agencies — such  agreements  terminating  with  the 
payment  of  the  loan. 

Permanent  articles  of  agreement  among  the  farm- 
ers themselves  by  cooperative  credit  associations. 

With  regard  to  temporary  agreements  with  ex- 
isting loan  agencies  three  different  ways  are  sug- 
gested. Each  of  these  plans  has  enabled  farmers  to 
borrow  money  at  reduced  rates  of  interest,  and  on 
more  favorable  terms  of  repayment  than  are  usual. 

The  three  forms  of  temporary  agreements  sug- 
gested run  as  follows : 

(a)  That  farmers  enter  into  an  agreement  with 
local  bankers  or  with  other  persons  who  supply  the 
loans  to  adopt  a  uniform  and  approved  system  of 
some  farm  improvement.  The  security  given  by 
the  farmers  is  not  different  from  that  usually  re- 
quired. In  the  case  of  dairy  stock  those  supplying 
the  funds  usually  buy  the  stock  for  the  farmers.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  those  persons  furnishing  the  funds 
also  buy  the  stock  in  every  case,  usually  under  the 
advice  of  specialists  connected  with  the  State  or 
federal  Government.  The  stock  thus  bought  is  then 
sold  to  the  farmers  at  actual  cost,  plus  a  certain 
percentage  to  cover  incidental  expenses. 


104  Use  Your  Government 

The  lender  takes  in  payment  the  farmer's  per- 
sonal note  with  or  without  endorsement  or  with 
mortgage  security  on  the  stock  purchased. 

Under  this  plan,  as  worked  out  in  certain  local- 
ities in  North  Dakota,  the  farmer  has  borrowed 
money  on  his  personal  note  with  interest  at  eight 
per  cent.,  whereas  the  usual  local  rate  is  ten  or 
twelve  per  cent.  The  notes  were  drawn  for  periods 
varying  from  six  months  to  a  year,  but  permitted  re- 
newals and  partial  prepayments  on  the  principal. 

(b)  Under  this  plan  additional  security  is  sup- 
plied by  having  the  farmers  collectively  assume  a 
certain  guarantee  for  the  notes  given  by  the  mem- 
bers under  the  agreement.  An  illustration  of  how 
this  has  worked  out  is  afforded  on  an  irrigation 
project  in  southern  Montana.  Nineteen  farmers  or- 
ganized an  association  and  appointed  trustees  to 
represent  the  association  in  dealing  with  a  local 
bank.  The  trustees  were  authorized  to  guarantee  a 
limited  amount  to  the  bank  on  the  joint  and  several 
liability  of  the  associate  members.  By  adding  this 
guarantee  to  the  security  offered  by  the  individual 
farmers,  the  latter  were  able  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary capital  for  the  purchase  of  two  carloads  of 
heifers  which  were  shipped  in  from  another  state 
in  August,  1913. 

(c)  If,  in  place  of  the  limited  guarantee  supplied 
by  farmers  themselves  jointly,  as  described  in  plan 
(b),  a  similar  guarantee   from  a  third  party  be 


Farm  Finance  105 

submitted,  the  essential  features  of  a  third  plan 
will  be  the  result. 

Such  a  project  was  carried  out  in  northwestern 
Wisconsin  in  the  spring  of  1913  and  in  northeast- 
ern Minnesota  in  the  winter  of  1914.  The  third 
party  consisted  of  local  business  men  who  realized 
their  common  interest  with  the  farmers  in  the  gen- 
eral improvement  of  agricultural  conditions  in  their 
territory.  One  agreement  was  made  between  the 
farmers  and  trustees  appointed  by  bankers,  and 
another  agreement  between  the  trustees  and  busi- 
ness men.  The  latter  subscribed  a  certain  percent- 
age of  the  funds  loaned,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  money  was  to  be  a  guarantee  fund  to  protect 
the  bankers.  The  first  purchase  made  under  this 
plan  in  northwestern  Wisconsin  included  several 
carloads  of  dairy  stock. 

The  Government  has  issued  a  bulletin  showing 
the  need  of  cooperative  credit  associations  in  the 
United  States,  such  as  already  exist  in  Europe  and 
Canada. 

In  this  bulletin  it  is  pointed  out  that  there  are 
many  farmers  who  realize  the  importance  of  im- 
proving their  equipment  and  farm  methods  but  who 
lack  the  capital  required  to  make  the  desired 
changes.  At  the  same  time  the  terms  on  which  they 
may  be  able  to  borrow  the  necessary  funds  are  not 
such  as  to  encourage  the  use  of  a  loan.  Where  a 
group  of  neighboring  farmers  are  thus  similarly  sit- 


106  Use  Your  Government 

uated  a  cooperative  credit  association  may  supply 
the  needed  additional  security  by  placing  the  col- 
lective good  will  of  the  group  behind  each  of  the 
members. 

Such  an  association  would  also  provide  for  the 
accumulation  and  use  of  local  savings,  afford  train- 
ing in  business  habits  and  procedure,  supply  a  col- 
lective fund  for  agricultural  purposes  and  render 
service  to  its  members  in  other  ways. 

The  Government  is  making  a  special  study  of  this 
subject  with  a  view  to  encouraging  the  extension 
of  this  form  of  organization  among  farmers  who 
desire  to  improve  their  personal  credit. 

The  Bureau  of  Markets  is  prepared  to  render 
active  field  assistance  to  farmers  who  desire  to  or- 
ganize Farmers'  Mutual  Insurance  Companies.  De- 
tailed field  studies  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
have  already  been  made  and  bulletins  issued. 

A  set  of  farmers'  by-laws  for  Mutual  Fire  In- 
surance Companies  has  also  been  prepared  and  is 
included  in  a  bulletin  dealing  with  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  XL    INVESTIGATIONS  CONCERN- 
ING DISEASES  PREVALENT  IN 
RURAL  DISTRICTS 

Public  The  Public  Health  Service  does  im- 

Health  portant  work  with  regard  to  diseases 

Service.         prevalent  in  rural  districts. 

In  certain  of  these  there  is  a  proportion  of  40  per 
cent,  of  malaria,  which  is  prevalent  wherever  the 
malaria  mosquito  exists  (see  page  34).  This  dis- 
ease has  been  a  great  misfortune  to  the  farmer  both 
in  regard  to  his  health  and  the  value  of  his  farm 
lands.  Land  which  should  be  worth  from  $50.00  to 
$60.00  an  acre  has  oftentimes  been  reduced  to  $15.00 
or  $20.00,  if  infested  with  mosquitoes.  Investigations 
have  been  carried  on  by  the  Service  in  cooperation 
with  the  health  authorities  of  the  localities  con- 
cerned, and  many  areas  drained,  oiled,  and  other- 
wise treated,  these  measures  serving  as  examples 
for  other  communities. 

Studies  were  made  and  controlled  measures  un- 
dertaken of  the  several  species  of  mosquitoes  preva- 
lent, their  selection  of  breeding  places,  flight,  habits 
in  relation  to  man,  attraction  and  repulsion,  geo- 
graphical distribution,  etc.    In  the  hospitals  cases 

107 


108  Use  Your  Government 

of  malaria  were  studied  with  reference  to  immunity, 
effect  of  remedies  and  their  methods  of  administra- 
tion. Economic  studies  in  connection  with  field  sur- 
veys were  also  made  and  data  from  all  available 
sources,  including  insurance  companies,  were  se- 
lected. 

Specially  infested  regions  were  the  rice-growing 
districts,  where  it  is  necessary  to  flood  the  fields 
for  the  development  of  the  crops.  This  operation  is 
an  important  cause  for  the  breeding  of  mosquitoes 
and  the  rice-growing  districts  have  therefore  inter- 
ested the  Service. 

Popular  bulletins  and  pamphlets  have  been  issued 
by  the  Service  for  the  benefit  of  farmers,  such  as 
''Malaria — ^lessons  on  its  cause  and  prevention,'' 
''Malaria  Control — drainage  as  an  antimalarial 
measure,"  "What  the  Farmer  Can  Do  to  Prevent 
Malaria,"  "Antimalarial  Measures  for  Farm- 
houses and  Plantations,"  "Demonstrations  of  Ma- 
laria Control,"  "Screening  as  an  Antimalarial 
Measure,"  "Prevention  of  Malaria — suggestions  on 
how  to  screen  the  home  to  keep  out  effectively  the 
mosquitoes  which  spread  the  disease,"  "Control  of 
Malaria — oiling  as  an  antimosquito  measure." 

Another  disease  prevalent  in  the  rural  districts 
is  pellagra,  which  is  often  the  cause  of  insanity. 
Investigations  have  been  made  by  the  Service  and 
it  has  been  found  that  the  disease  is  due  to  the 
unbalanced  diet  often  customary  with  inhabitants 


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AFTER  MEASURES  INSTITUTED  BY  U.  S.  PUBLIC  HEALTH 
SERVICE. 

109 


110  Use  Your  Government 

of  the  country  districts,  where  in  certain  parts  it 
causes  more  deaths  than  tuberculosis.  Grreat  ef- 
forts are  being  made  to  educate  the  people  to  a 
well-balanced  diet. 

The  Public  Health  Service  has  done  very  im- 
portant and  humane  work  in  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains and  other  rural  districts  where  the  inhabitants 
suffer  from  trachoma,  a  contagious  disease  of  the 
eyes  which  frequently  ends  in  blindness.  Small  hos- 
pitals were  established  in  districts  known  to  be  in- 
fected, which  proved  the  best  method  of  curing  and 
preventing  the  disease,  20,000  cases  having  been 
treated  with  success.  The  longer  these  hospitals 
are  established,  the  more  the  people  understand 
their  importance  and  necessity.  They  have  proved 
centers  for  creating  interest  in  public  health  gener- 
ally, the  doctors  and  nurses  teaching  their  patients 
that  trachoma  and  many  other  such  ills  are  due 
solely  to  unwholesome  living  and  are  entirely  pre- 
ventable. 

Field  clinics  are  held  as  a  means  of  carrying  on 
cures  and  prevention  in  various  infected  localities. 
In  these  temporary  hospitals,  which  are  frequently 
improvised,  the  officer  performs  operations  for  re- 
lief of  cases,  leaving  at  his  departure  a  trained 
nurse  in  charge  of  the  work. 

Another  infectious  illness  prevalent  in  rural  dis- 
tricts and  under  investigation  by  the  Public  Health 
Service  is  Eocky  Mountain  spotted  fever.    In  the 


These  two  men  led  each  other  to  the  Hospital  of 
the  Public  Health  Service  and  went  home  cured. 


Operating  on  trachoma  patients  at  a  Trachoma  Clinic,     U.  S.  Public 

Health  Service. 


Investigations  of  Diseases  in  Rural  Districts    111 

Bitter  Root  Valley  certain  districts,  owing  to  its 
prevalence,  were  almost  uninhabitable,  and  the  rich 
fertile  land  found  there  had  decreased  in  value  from 
$100.00  or  $125.00  per  acre  to  $15.00  per  acre.  The 
Health  Service  is  using  every  effort  to  combat  the 
fever  through  the  education  of  the  people  as  to  the 
mode  of  transmission  of  the  disease,  which  has  been 
found  to  be  due  to  tick  bites,  and  the  precautions 
which  should  be  taken  for  its  prevention.  The  Serv- 
ice is  also  making  efforts  to  secure  from  the  state 
authorities  the  enactment  of  proper  laws  and  regula- 
tions restricting  the  grazing  of  horses  and  cattle  in 
order  to  reduce  the  breeding  of  the  ticks. 


CHAPTER  XII.  COURSES  FOR  PARENTS 
ORGANIZED  BY  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDU- 
CATION 

The  reading  courses  organized  by  the  ''Home 
Education"  Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Education 
Bureau  of  a^"©  an  important  method  of  helping 
Education,    parents  to  further  their  own  education. 

Parents  wishing  to  take  such  a  course  write  to  the 
Division  for  enrolment  blanks.  A  list  of  books, 
with  directions  how  to  proceed  is  then  sent,  the  list 
having  been  selected  by  a  committee  appointed  for 
that  purpose.  It  includes  books  on  the  physical  care 
of  the  child,  its  moral  development,  every  phase  of 
homemaking  and  a  few  books  of  fiction.  After  the 
books  have  been  read  the  Bureau  requires  that  a  few 
simple  questions  concerning  them  should  be  an- 
swered, thus  showing  the  amount  of  care  with  which 
they  have  been  studied.  If  these  are  satisfactory  a 
certificate  signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
is  sent  to  the  applicant  confirming  her  as  being  a 
member  of  that  particular  reading  circle. 

The  reading  courses  are  started  through  the 
schools,  through  publicity  in  the  newspapers  and 
magazines,  by  the  Parent  Teacher  Associations  and 
other  educational  bodies. 

112 


Courses  for  Parents 


113 


In  connection  with  these  reading  courses  the  Di- 
vision carries  on  a  direct  correspondence  with  the 
parents  who  desire  information  regarding  the  fur- 


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thering  of  their  own  education  and  the  upbringing 
of  their  children.  The  importance  attached  to  this 
work  and  its  personal  character  can  be  seen  from 


114  Use  Your  Government 

innumerable    letters    received    from    the    remotest 
country  districts  which  run  in  the  following  strain : 

''I  am  a  widow  54  years  of  age.  My  seven 
children  are  grown.  All  of  them  are  gradu- 
ated from  High  School,  and  those  who  wished 
to  do  so  from  College.  I  have  been  house- 
keeper, Mother  and  part  of  the  time,  breadwin- 
ner for  the  family  more  than  thirty  years,  but 
now  with  the  children  grown  and  beginning  to 
make  homes  for  themselves,  I  must  have  some- 
thing to  keep  my  interest  up  in  living  and  I  do 
not  want  them  to  ever  feel  ashamed  of  their 
mother.  Will  you  kindly  give  me  such  in- 
formation as  you  have  at  hand  in  regard  to 
courses  offered  f" 

"I  want  to  ask,  will  you  please  show  me  the 
way  to  get  some  of  your  literature  to  study,  I 
have  three  children  and  want  to  raise  them  to 
be  men  and  women  and  am  eager  to  get  every- 
thing in  my  power  to  help  them  to  be  so.  I  am 
very,  very  poor  and  not  able  to  buy  literature 
but  I  don't  think  that  would  be  any  drawback 
to  the  children  if  I  raise  them  right  and  give 
them  all  the  education  I  possibly  can.  There 
are  so  many  mothers  in  this  saw  mill  town  that 
are  starving  mentally  for  such  literature  as  you 
have." 

If  the  homes  are  really  too  poor  to  buy  the  books 
of  the  reading  courses,  and  there  are  no  libraries  in 
the  vicinity,  books  are  loaned  and  the  joy  this  gives 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  letter : 


Courses  for  Parents  115 

''Your  letter  at  hand.  I  hoped  to  take  up  the 
study  of  the  reading  courses  for  parents,  but 
am  unable  to  get  the  books  required  for  the 
course.  Your  letter  gives  me  hope.  Yet  I  may 
not  understand  your  generous  offer.  To  make 
this  shack  into  a  home.  To  have  our  daughter 
grow  up  a  good,  useful  woman  and  to  learn  to 
be  of  use  to  our  friends  and  neighbors  is  my 
earnest  desire.  If  you  can  lend  me  a  helping 
hand  my  task  may  be  easier. '  * 

Mothers'  Reading  Circles  and  their  organization 
play  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  of  this 
Division. 

To  get  an  exact  idea  of  the  methods  of  founding 
and  continuing  one  of  these,  it  is  perhaps  best  to 
quote  from  the  report  of  a  "leader"  of  one  of  these 
Reading  Circles,  which  is  typical  of  their  work : 

''Our  circle  is  called  the  Mutual  Benefit  Read- 
ing Circle.  The  first  meeting  was  announced 
in  eight  Parent-Teacher  Associations  and  in 
the  local  papers.  We  decided  to  meet  every 
Wednesday  at  my  home  from  11  a.  m.  to  2  p.  m. 
This  hour  was  chosen  so  that  the  mothers  would 
have  an  opportunity  to  do  their  morning  work 
and  return  in  time  to  receive  the  children  when 
they  came  from  school  in  the  afternoon.  The 
members  bring  their  luncheon  and  a  cup  of  hot 
tea  or  lemonade  is  served.  This  feature  pro- 
motes sociability.  Animated  discussions  about 
home  problems  take  place  while  the  members 
sit  about  in  groups  with  their  lunches. 


116  Use  Your  Government 


((I 


The  meetings  are  called  to  order  promptly, 
as  promptitude  on  the  part  of  the  leader  begets 
promptness  on  the  part  of  the  members.  A 
record  showing  the  roll  of  the  members,  their 
attendance,  written  reviews,  names  of  visitors, 
the  date  of  enrolment  of  each  member,  resi- 
dence, telephone,  the  books  loaned  and  all  busi- 
ness transacted,  is  carefully  kept. 

''Attendance  at  the  meetings  is  of  three 
classes:  (1)  those  who  are  working  for  the 
certificate  and  writing  reviews;  (2)  those  who 
attend  for  the  good  they  may  get;  and  (3)  visi- 
tors. The  average  attendance  has  been  26;  lar- 
gest number  present,  34.  Children  have  been 
present  at  every  meeting.  They  have  rarely  re- 
mained in  the  room,  preferring  to  play  under 
the  trees.  During  vacation  period  there  were  as 
many  as  20  children  at  one  meeting.  The  Circle 
hired  a  teacher  to  come  and  look  after  the  chil- 
dren, the  mothers  contributing  enough  each 
time  ($2.00)  to  pay  the  teacher  for  her  work. 
She  read  to  them,  played  games,  and  had  con- 
siderable hand  work  done. 

"Many  of  the  members  come  a  long  way,  at 
least  two  or  three  miles,  but  automobiles  have 
assisted  in  transportation.  The  absentees  are 
alway  asked  for  and  the  pleasant  notes  of  greet- 
ing or  explanation  for  absence  are  read. 

* '  At  first  different  women  read,  but  finally  the 
leader  did  all  the  reading,  as  the  members 
seemed  to  grasp  the  subject  matter  better  when 
they  had  become  accustomed  to  the  expression 
and  voice  of  one  reader.     There  are  frequent 


Courses  for  Parents  117 

reviews  and  always  a  thorough  review  of  each 
book  when  it  is  finished,  before  the  written  re- 
views are  sent  in.  Those  who  are  working  for 
the  certificates  usually  take  copious  notes.  The 
leader  has  made  out  questions  and  called  for 
volunteer  answers.  Helpful  passages  have  been 
memorized,  but  this  has  been  voluntary.  The 
reading  is  often  stopped  to  discuss  points  of 
agreement  and  disagreement  with  the  author. 
These  discussions  have  proved  very  helpful. 

"To  assist  the  mothers  in  gaining  the  points 
in  the  books,  at  the  close  of  each  meeting  each 
member  hands  in  two  or  more  questions  on  the 
work  gone  over  at  that  meeting. 

"Two  newspapers,  a  local  daily  and  a  Los 
Angeles  Sunday  paper,  report  our  meetings 
faithfully. 

"At  first  we  scarcely  knew  where  we  should 
be  able  to  obtain  all  the  books,  but  now  there 
is  no  question  of  difficulty  in  the  way.  I  owned 
ten  of  them  to  begin  with,  so  I  began  with  a 
faith  that  we  should  have  them  all  as  needed. 
One  mother  is  buying  all  of  them  as  we  go 
along,  and  she  and  her  husband  read  them  at 
home  as  we  are  reading  them;  then  she  gener- 
ously loans  them  to  those  who  have  missed  the 
readings.  Our  librarian  has  given  us  splendid 
cooperation.  All  the  books  of  the  course  are  on 
the  shelves,  and  are  in  great  demand.  Our 
County  Branch  Librarian  has  done  all  that  he 
can  to  secure  the  books  for  us,  and  has  been 
quite  successful. 

"We  have  a  sort  of  circulating  library  of 


118  Use  Your  Government 

kindred  books  to  those  in  the  course.  These  are 
in  great  demand,  and  have  been  read  by  many. 
Some  of  them  are:  'Self-Training  ^or  Mother- 
hood,' by  Sophia  Lovejoy  Dickinson;  'Natural 
Education,'  by  Mrs.  Stoner;  'Character  Build- 
ing,' by  J.  T.  White;  'Mottoes  and  Commen- 
taries of  Froebel's  Mother  Play,'  by  Susan  E. 
Blow;  'Education  of  Man,'  by  Froebel;  'Blessed 
Be  Drudgery,'  by  William  Gannett;  'The  Chil- 
dren of  the  Future,'  by  Nora  A.  Smith;  'The 
Study  of  a  Child,'  by  Louise  E.  Hogan;  "Seven- 
teen,' by  Booth  Tarkington;  'Story  of  My  Life,' 
by  Helen  Keller;  'The  Mother's  Book,'  by  C.  B. 
Burrell;  'Up  from  Slavery,'  by  Booker  T. 
Washington;  'The  Century  of  the  Child,'  by 
Ellen  Key ;  and  '  Schools  of  Tomorrow, '  by  John 
Dewey. 

"One  of  our  kindergarten  teachers  came  to 
us  one  afternoon  while  we  were  reading  'A 
Study  of  Child  Nature'  and  gave  us  a  very  in- 
teresting exposition  of  'Mottoes  and  Commen- 
taries of  Froebel's  Mother  Play,'  and  explained 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  specific  kindergarten 
plays  educate  the  child.  The  circle  also  visited 
this  same  teacher's  kindergarten  at  her  invita- 
tion, and  went  through  the  various  activities 
of  the  kindergarten  along  with  the  children. 
This  teacher  is  a  daughter  of  one  of  our  mem- 
bers, and  she  gives  us  much  help  through  her 
suggestions  and  her  earnestness.  Another  one 
of  the  members,  an  ex-kindergartner,  gave  us  a 
delightful  account  of  a  trip  to  Froebel's  part 
of  the  country  in  the  Thuringian  forest,  and  a 


Courses  for  Parents  119 

visit  to  a  genuine  German  Froebel  kindergar- 
ten of  tlie  conservative  type. 

''We  had  a  list  of  'The  Books  that  Most  In- 
fluence My  Childhood,'  submitted  by  the  mem- 
bers. This  proved  interesting,  and  covered  a 
wide  range,  as  may  be  imagined. 

"As  to  our  accomplishment:  We  have  read 
and  reviewed  four  books  and  nearly  finished  a 
fifth,  while  individual  members  have  read  the 
fictional  works  in  the  course.  We  agreed  to 
read  these  books  by  ourselves,  and  have  thought 
it  good  to  make  this  vacation  reading.  The 
books  have  all  been  discussed  at  the  meetings." 

A  great  deal  of  work  is  done  by  the  Division  in 
the  issuing  of  printed  matter  and  pamphlets  on 
home  education.  These  treat  of  this  subject  from 
every  angle,  and  they  are  sent  to  all  women  co- 
operating in  the  work  as  well  as  to  all  the  members 
of  the  Mothers'  Clubs. 

The  Division  of  Home  Education  is  doing  every- 
thing possible  to  help  mothers  train  their  children 
before  they  are  of  school  age  through  the  answer- 
ing of  direct  questions,  by  the  issuing  of  printed 
matter  and  through  a  special  reading  course  on  the 
care  and  training  of  children. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  work  is  the  promo- 
tion of  Parent-Teacher  Associations  in  the  rural 
districts,  which  are  sometimes  called  "Mothers 
Clubs." 

The  method  of  organizing  these  is  that  two  women 


120  Use  Your  Government 

are  selected  from  eacli  school  district  throughout  the 
country  who  are  interested  in  the  forming  of  such 
an  organization.  These  women  call  together  the 
parents  of  the  neighborhood  and  discuss  with  them 
their  common  problems,  the  Bureau  of  Education 
furnishing  a  simple  form  of  organization.  It  also 
suggests  programs,  materials  for  the  meeting,  and 
sends  to  these  Parent-Teacher  Associations,  of 
which  a  complete  list  is  kept,  any  printed  matter 
that  can  possibly  prove  of  interest  to  mothers. 
Should  any  problems  be  discussed  at  these  meetings 
for  which  a  solution  cannot  be  found,  the  teacher  in 
charge  makes  a  report  direct  to  the  Bureau  of 
Education  asking  for  advice  regarding  same. 


CHAPTER  XIII.— GOVERNMENT  ASSIST- 
ANCE FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  connec- 
tion with  rural  schools  is  carried  on  in  cooperation 
Bureau  of  with  the  state  systems,  the  Federal 
Education,  authorities  assisting  the  states  officers 
when  asked  so  to  do. 

The  work  of  this  Division  may  be  said  to  fall 
under  the  following  headings : 

(1)  It  acts  as  a  clearing  house  of  information 
on  every  phase  of  rural  school  work  all  over  the 
country. 

(2)  It  gives  information  concerning  normal 
schools,  and  advice  concerning  the  training  of 
teachers. 

(3)  It  draws  up  programs  of  study  for  rural 
school  work. 

(4)  It  organizes  Rural  Teacher  Reading 
Courses.  Throughout  the  country  rural  teachers 
are  enrolled  for  reading  courses,  who  are  advised 
to  read  certain  books  selected  for  their  special 
adaptability.  The  members  of  the  reading  course 
then  send  in  to  the  Division  a  short  criticizing  syn- 
opsis  of  what  they  have   gathered.     Should   this 

121 


122  Use  Your  Government 

prove  satisfactory  they  are  presented  with  a  cer- 
tificate signed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education 
to  the  effect  that  they  completed  the  required  course. 

(5)  The  Bureau  constantly  sends  out  literature, 
with  or  without  one  of  its  representatives,  showing 
the  needs  of  the  rural  schools. 

(6)  One  of  the  most  important  phases  of  the 
work  of  this  Division  is  its  work  of  survey. 

At  the  invitation  of  authorities  in  charge,  the 
Division  sends  out  representatives  to  make  a  com- 
plete survey  of  schools  in  rural  districts.  A  com- 
plete report  of  these  surveys,  together  with  the  ad- 
vice and  recommendation  of  the  officers  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Education  thereon,  is  afterwards  published 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public  at  large  and  for  other 
educational  bodies.  This  greatly  solves  the  prob- 
lems of  communities  living  under  similar  conditions. 

However,  not  only  problems  of  school  work  are 
solved,  but  better  methods  of  administration  and 
finance  are  discussed. 

One  of  the  latest  surveys  published  by  the  Di- 
vision and  typical  of  this  work  is  that  of  Wyoming. 
In  this  instance  a  committee  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernor and  provided  for  by  the  state  legislature  sent 
an  invitation  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  the 
survey  of  its  schools. 

The  method  of  conducting  this  survey  consisted 
in  personal  visits  to  the  schools  and  teachers  by  the 
members  of  the  survey,  visits  to  the  country  su- 


Government  Aid  for  Rural  Schools      123 

perintendents,  the  collection  of  statistical  data,  etc. 

To  arouse  interest  and  educate  the  public,  letters 
were  sent  to  hundreds  of  rural  inhabitants  of  Wy- 
oming, inquiring  whether  the  schools  were  satis- 
factory and  what  complaints  there  were  against 
them.  This  was  done  not  merely  to  get  their  per- 
sonal opinion,  but  to  get  the  state  stirred  up  in 
taking  an  interest  in  its  schools  in  sufficient  measure 
to  handle  the  legislation  concerned  therewith. 

The  completed  report  and  recommendations  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education,  of  which  there  were  issued 
3,500  copies,  was  then  circulated  throughout  the 
state.  The  direct  result  of  this  was  that  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Wyoming  called  a  meeting  of  all  the  people 
connected  with  the  schools.  This  meeting  lasted 
three  days  and  discussed  all  the  recommendations 
brought  up  by  the  Bureau  of  Education.  Every 
possible  method  of  arousing  the  people  of  the  state 
to  the  importance  of  a  change  in  the  school  legis- 
lation was  used. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  gave  further  direct 
help  in  drawing  up  these  new  laws  incorporating 
the  changes  and  improvements  suggested  in  the 
report. 

Public  -A.t  the  request  of  health  and  educa- 

Health  tional   authorities,    the    Service   makes 

Service.  surveys  and  investigations  of  problems 
of  school  hygiene.  These  investigations  are  large- 
ly   confined    to    rural    districts,    and    include    not 


124  Use  Your  Government 

only  instruction  in  sanitation  of  school  buildings 
and  in  the  determination  of  the  physical  and  mental 
status  of  the  school  children,  but  they  also  include 
researches  in  mental  hygiene. 


1 


CHAPTER  XIV.— MANNER  OF  DISSEMINAT- 
ING INFORMATION  BY  THE  DEPART- 
MENT OF  AGRICULTURE 

(a)     Demonstration  Work  of  the  States  Relations 

Service 

The  States  Relations  Service  is  the  only  Bureau 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  which  is  organ- 
States  ized  especially  to  deal  with  the  states. 
Relations  The  principal  points  of  contact  have 
Service.  been  through  the  experiment  work  car- 
ried on  by  the  state  agricultural  colleges  and 
through  the  different  extension  activities  of  the 
Department,  namely,  teaching  of  the  people  on  their 
farms  or  in  their  homes  in  a  direct  personal  relation- 
ship. 

The  demonstration  work  of  the  States  Relations 
Service  is  conducted  in  two  offices — one  for  the  fif- 
teen Southern  states  and  another  for  the  thirty- 
three  Northern  and  Western  states. 

Their  methods  of  organization  slightly  differ. 
The  territory  covering  the  Southern  states  is  di- 
vided into  the  work  of  the  ''County  Agent,"  with 
the  farmers  (who  at  the  same  time  is  the  organizer 
of  the  Boys'  Club)  and  the  work  of  the  "Woman 

125 


126  Use  Your  Government 

County  Agent"  who  is  in  charge  of  the  Home  Dem- 
onstration Work  in  the  farmers'  home,  and  the  Girls* 
Club  work. 

The  territory  covering  the  Northern  and  West- 
ern states  is  divided  into  three  parts.  The  work  of 
the  County  Agent  with  the  farmers  and  the  work  of 
the  Woman  County  Agent  in  the  farmer's  home 
and  the  Boys'  and  Girls'  Club  work. 

The  only  difference  is  the  slight  one  of  organiza- 
tion; the  principles  of  the  work  are,  however,  iden- 
tical. 

The  Government  in  beginning  to  give  practical  aid 
to  the  farmer  found  that  the  simple  issuing  of  bulle- 
tins was  almost  useless  as  a  means  of  instructing 
the  farmer  in  modern  methods.  There  was  compar- 
atively little  likelihood  of  his  putting  the  directions 
of  the  bulletins  into  actual  practise  without  his  being 
personally  shown  how  this  was  to  be  done.  In  1904, 
therefore,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  conceived 
the  idea  of  employing  men  to  get  into  personal  con- 
tact with  the  men  of  the  rural  districts.  The  plan 
was  first  tried  out  in  Texas  and  proved  to  be  the 
ideal  method  of  disseminating  agricultural  infor- 
mation. 

It  was  intended  that  the  work  should  begin  with 
the  farmer.  It  was  found  easier,  however,  to  reach 
the  boys  of  the  family  first,  because  the  farmers 
themselves  objected  to  experimenting  with  their 
own  time  and  money  on  ideas  new  to  them.    They 


^'^Vj^'^'BrnM 


A  demonstration  in  applying  poisoned  bran  in  grasshopper  fight. 


The  County  Agent  conducts  parties  of  farmers  on  ' '  Excursions ' '  to 
farms  of  successful  men  whose  good  work  makes  the  best  ' '  demon- 
stration. ' ' 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    127 

had  little  interest  in  anything  that  did  not  bring 
them  immediate  profit,  but  did  not  object  to  their 
boys  working  with  the  County  Agent,  and  once  they 
had  discovered  the  success  that  attended  the  meth- 
ods being  taught  the  boys  they  themselves  began 
to  turn  to  the  Agent  for  advice  and  help.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  work  of  the  County  Agent 
which  is  now  used  all  over  the  country  to  place  at 
the  disposal  of  the  farmer  the  entire  work  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Colleges. 

The  main  plan  of  the  demonstration  work  with 
the  farmers  is  to  select  a  number  of  them  and  get 
each  of  them  to  agree  to  carry  on  a  ''Demonstra- 
tion" on  their  own  farm  under  the  supervision  of 
the  County  Agent.  This  method  of  demonstrating 
certain  problems  on  the  farmer's  own  ground  was 
found  infinitely  more  satisfactory  than  the  method 
of  model  farms,  partly  because  the  farmers  were 
only  interested  in  the  particular  problems  which  con- 
cerned their  own  farms,  and  were  not  at  all  dis- 
posed to  visit  those  of  the  Government,  and  partly 
because  the  farmers  had  an  idea  that  the  methods 
practised  on  the  model  farm  would  not  be  profitable 
under  the  conditions  prevailing  on  their  own  farms. 

The  demonstrations  on  their  own  ground  invar- 
iably concern  some  particular  problem  that  the  dis- 
trict may  have  to  contend  with.  In  the  case  of  a 
com  demonstration,  for  instance,  the  farmer  takes 
one  acre.    He  cultivates  it  under  the  instruction  of 


128  Use  Your  Government 

the  County  Agent,  the  other  farmers  being  urged  to 
come  and  see  it  in  its  various  stages.  Field  meetings 
are  often  held  in  connection  therewith,  at  which  the 
demonstration  is  discussed  in  all  its  different 
phases.  When  the  success  of  the  demonstration  is 
apparent  the  Agent  persuades  the  other  farmers 
to  undertake  some  line  of  work  on  their  own  farms 
based  on  this  experience.  During  his  regular  visits 
to  the  demonstration  plats,  the  Agent  is  now  able  to 
get  at  the  other  problems  of  the  farmer.  The  visits 
of  the  men  of  the  district  to  the  field  bring  the  whole 
community  into  meeting  for  a  common  interest  and 
gradually  for  the  discussion  of  matters  of  mutual 
concern. 

The  Agent  does  not  pretend  to  the  farmers  that 
he  is  able  to  solve  single-handed  all  the  problems 
they  have  been  fighting  for  years.  He  makes  it  clear 
to  them  that  the  Government  has  founded  for  the 
solving  of  these  problems  a  gigantic  department 
working  hand  in  hand  with  their  State  College 
solely  and  only  to  furnish  every  known  scientific 
and  technical  aid  for  the  fostering  of  agriculture. 
He  impresses  on  them  that  he  is  simply  one  part 
of  a  great  system — a  connecting  link — and  all  the 
separate  departments  of  the  Government  are  at  his 
disposal  in  order  to  give  the  farmer  any  assistance 
he  may  need. 

Many  of  the  problems  in  connection  with  the 
Agent's  work  require   special  skill  and  technical 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    129 

knowledge.  There  are,  therefore,  employed  ''Ex- 
tension Specialists ' '  connected  with  the  various  Bu- 
reaus of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
State  Colleges.  These  Extension  Specialists  are  con- 
cerned with  such  problems  as  the  introduction  of 
silos,  marketing,  dairying,  insect  pests,  etc. 

Not  only  does  the  Agent  pass  on  to  the  farmer  aid 
resulting  from  scientific  investigation,  but  he  is  also 
a  connection  between  the  farmer  and  his  Govern- 
ment in  all  matters  needing  practical  assistance  and 
advice. 

Generally  now,  in  the  North  and  West,  before  an 
Agent  is  appointed  the  state  leaders  for  the  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  go  into  the  county  to  ascertain 
whether  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  County  Agent.  If  so,  they  organize  the 
county  to  take  up  the  demonstration  work.  These 
organizations  are  called  Farmers'  Bureaus.  They 
are  made  up  of  the  experienced  farmers  of  a  county 
and  through  the  local  membership  the  Bureaus  be- 
come clearing  houses  of  information  and  experience 
of  the  farmers  belonging  to  the  county.  The  Agent 
gathers  a  great  deal  of  local  knowledge  through 
this  membership,  which  he  in  turn  imparts  as  les- 
sons to  those  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the  points 
in  question.  The  County  Farm  Bureau  helps  to 
unify  the  efforts  of  existing  rural  organizations 
and  strengthens  their  work. 

In  the  South  there  exists  a  different  system.    The 


130  Use  Your  Government 

farmers,  having  been  organized  around  a  particular 
demonstration  into  local  farmers'  clubs  or  unions, 
come  together  in  a  central  county  organization  made 
up  of  delegates  from  these  local  associations. 

That  is  to  say,  in  the  North  and  West  the  dem- 
onstrations come  from  an  official  organization,  while 
in  the  South  the  county  organizations  are  formed 
as  a  result  of  the  demonstrations. 

The  County  Agents  from  time  to  time  get  to- 
gether a  group  of  twenty  or  thirty  farmers  with 
their  cars  in  a  vicinity  to  see  some  particularly  in- 
teresting experiment  made  with  or  without  assist- 
ance by  some  farmer  living  at  a  distance.  Not  only 
are  the  experiences  with  the  growing  of  crops  thus 
exchanged,  but  the  Agent  is  keenly  alive  to  any  in- 
teresting facts  relating  to  the  breeding  of  cattle,  the 
marketing  of  dairy  products,  etc. 

Large  groups  of  farmers  from  each  county  are 
also  taken  to  the  Agricultural  Colleges  to  view  spe- 
cial experiments  which  may  be  of  vital  interest  to 
their  own  particular  problems. 

Originally  the  Farm  Bureau  was  simply  to  aid 
the  County  Agent's  work.  It  is  now,  however,  be- 
ginning to  be  recognized  as  the  official  agricultural 
body  interested  in  promoting  a  better  and  more 
prosperous  rural  life.  It  is  interested  in  home  eco- 
nomics, demonstrations,  boys'  and  girls'  club  work, 
farm  management,  demonstrations,  and  the  work  of 
the   various   institutional   specialists.     The   Farm 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    131 

Bureau  has  now  become  an  agency  through  which 
all  groups  of  rural  people,  whether  organized  or 
unorganized,  are  able  to  secure  a  hearing. 

The  principal  purposes  of  these  organizations 
are: 

(1)  To  bring  to  the  Agent  the  advice  of  the  best 
farmers  in  the  county  as  to  what  ought  to  be  done, 
and  how  it  should  be  done. 

(2)  To  provide  an  organization  for  easily  and 
quickly  reaching  every  community  in  the  county 
with  information  of  value  to  that  community  or  to 
the  county  as  a  whole. 

(3)  To  provide  a  plan  for  organized  help,  enlist- 
ing the  cooperating  of  all  the  farmers  interested  in 
carrying  out  a  county  agricultural  program  of  work. 

The  woman  Demonstration  Agent  gained  access 
to  the  home  through  the  girl  and  was  able  to  obtain 
the  cooperation  of  her  mother.  The  office  of  Home 
Economics  (Part  VII,  Chap.  I)  was  her  great  help. 

Although  the  Government  had  given  the  farmer 
expert  aid  in  his  work  since  1904,  it  did  not  keep 
pace  with  this  in  looking  after  his  home.  It  had 
taught  the  farmer  modem  scientific  methods  at 
every  angle  of  his  work,  while  his  women  folk  were 
still  using  primitive  methods  for  their  housework 
and  the  work  of  the  farm  that  concerns  them.  No 
attention  was  given  to  this  matter  until  the  Depart- 
ment took  up   demonstration  work  through  local 


132  Use  Your  Government 

agents  in  a  small  degree,  which  preceded  the  passing 
of  the  Smith-Lever  bill  in  1914.  This  bill  agitated 
the  question  of  increased  funds  not  only  to  develop 
better  farming,  but  to  develop  better  homemaking 
so  as  to  create  general  contentment  on  the  farm. 

It  was  found  that  a  great  many  farm  women  knew 
better  methods  than  those  they  were  using,  but  they 
were  entirely  handicapped  for  lack  of  money.  Part 
of  the  purpose  of  the  work,  therefore,  was  to  show 
the  women  how  to  convert  their  personal  farm  labor 
into  a  greater  number  of  dollars  and  cents.  And 
so  they  were  taught  first  of  all  to  help  themselves 
eJBficiently  in  the  handling  of  marketable  material. 

The  "Women  County  Agents  also  began  to  impress 
the  fact  that  no  man  is  as  dependent  on  the  practical 
efficiency  of  his  wife  as  the  farmer.  There  was  no 
need  to  point  out  her  *' sentimental"  value,  but  her 
value  as  a  business  partner  had  been  very  little 
emphasized.  The  County  Agents  made  this  clear 
and  encouraged  the  wife  and  daughter  of  the  rural 
districts  in  discovering  the  same  methods  of  effi- 
ciency as  the  farmer  already  knew  in  his  part  of 
the  business.  The  women  were  therefore  taught  in 
every  possible  way  that  their  time  has  a  value  to 
the  world  of  at  least  25  cents  per  hour,  and  that  it 
is  their  duty  to  finish  their  work  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible so  that  they  may  enjoy  their  friends,  their  chil- 
dren and  do  any  reading  they  may  want  to  do. 

The  chief  practical  method  of  accomplishing  this 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    133 

was  through  the  introduction  of  labor-saving  de- 
vices, either  bought  or  homemade.  It  was  found  that 
many  of  the  women  had  been  walking  for  miles  with 
pails  of  water  when  a  few  dollars  could  have  laid 
pipes,  that  they  had  been  stooping  over  sinks  and 
washtubs  which  comparatively  little  labor  could 
change  to  a  comfortable  height.  ''Save  your  steps" 
has  been  the  cry  of  the  Home  Demonstration  Agent 
all  through  her  work. 

It  has  been  somewhat  difficult  to  introduce  modem 
methods  into  the  farmers'  homes,  for  anything" 
that  cost  money  was  looked  upon  with  suspicion  as 
possible  waste.  So  the  Agent  began  by  the  simplest 
methods  and  with  those  as  would  benefit  a  vast  com- 
munity instead  of  a  prosperous  few,  and  a  great 
many  of  the  labor-saving  devices  were  even  made  at 
home.  One  of  the  most  popular  of  these  has  been 
the  homemade  fireless  cooker.  The  farm  women 
have  known  well  that  their  methods  of  frying,  of 
cooking  cereals,  etc.,  left  much  to  be  desired,  and  the 
fireless  cookers  have  done  much  to  help  them.  The 
iceless  refrigerator,  also,  for  farms  where  it  is  im- 
possible to  obtain  ice  and  where  there  are  no  cool 
cellars  has  met  with  a  very  great  success.  These  ice- 
less  refrigerators  are  easily  and  inexpensively  con- 
structed on  a  basis  of  evaporation.  Sanitary  and 
practical  devices  in  connection  with  milking,  butter- 
making,  etc.,  have  also  been  devised  by  the  Agent. 

The  health  of  the  people  on  many  of  the  farms 


134  Use  Your  Government 

was  found  to  be  anything  but  good,  a  great  deal  of 
fault  being  due  to  the  wrong  choosing  of  meals.  So 
the  Women  Agents  have  been  doing  everything  in 
their  power  to  teach  the  women  on  the  farms  the 
value  of  well-balanced  rations,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Division  of  Home  Economics.     (See  page  323.) 

Demonstrations  have  been  made  in  the  making  of 
every  kind  of  bread  and  biscuit,  using  substitutes 
for  wheat,  based  on  experiments  made  in  the  Bureau 
of  Chemistry. 

The  Demonstration  Agents  have  also  taught  the 
country  women  how  to  purchase  the  best  values.  It 
was  found  that  in  a  great  many  cases  the  women 
were  using  the  fashions  of  the  cities  which  were  en- 
tirely unsuited  to  country  life.  The  Agents  are  do- 
ing their  very  best  in  every  way  to  encourage  these 
women  to  either  make  themselves  attractive,  suit- 
able garments  or  are  showing  them  how  to  purchase 
such  at  the  best  possible  value.  This  also  applies  to 
the  furnishing  of  their  homes.  Harmony  and  beauty 
of  line  and  color  have  been  pointed  out  and  excel- 
lent results  achieved. 

The  work  in  the  farmers'  homes  may  be  said  to 
have  begun  with  the  Girls '  Club  work.  The  Women 
Agents  started  by  organizing  for  the  girls  of  each 
district  garden  clubs,  showing  the  girls  how  to  use 
their  gardens  to  the  best  advantage.  However, 
mere  gardening  was  not  sufficient  for  these  girls 
who  now  had  their  ambitions  awakened,  and  the 


A  Canning  Club  takes  lessons  in  canning. 


A     "Mother-Daughter"    canning    team.       (See    '< Mother-Daughter 

Canning  Clubs.) 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    135 

Woman  Agent  began  to  show  them  that  they  could 
make  money  out  of  these  little  plots  by  canning  their 
produce.  The  idea  of  canning  and  marketing  vege- 
tables was  thus  given  to  these  young  girls  of  the 
rural  districts,  and  the  *' Canning  Clubs"  became 
more  and  more  spread  over  the  country. 

The  *' Canning  Club"  was  the  foundation  of  all 
fields  of  women's  work,  and  through  it  the  Agent 
found  herself  as  a  matter  of  course  allowed  to  enter 
into  the  home  of  the  farmer's  wife.  And  it  gave 
her  a  splendid  personal  contact  with  everything 
that  concerns  the  rural  home. 

Before  the  end  of  the  season  the  work  of  the 
young  girls  under  the  guidance  of  the  County 
Agents  proved  of  such  efficiency  that  the  mothers 
became  eager  to  see  how  this  work  was  done,  and 
gradually  the  mothers  and  daughters  were  found 
both  eager  for  the  advice  of  the  County  Agent  on 
everything  that  concerned  their  side  of  the  life  on 
the  farm. 

The  County  Agent  originally  worked  in  her  dis- 
trict only  a  few  months  each  year.  This  made  the 
states  willing  to  make  appropriations  for  the  work 
in  cooperation  with  the  Federal  Government.  Now, 
however,  she  has  more  than  ample  work  for  the 
whole  year  round. 

The  general  scheme  for  work  of  the  girls  enter- 
ing the  clubs  lasts  over  about  four  years.  During 
these  four  years  they  are  supposed  to  learn  every- 


136  Use  Your  Government 

thing  to  do  with  the  management  of  a  house  that 
cannot  be  learned  at  school.  Their  work  is  not 
simply  of  an  educational  character,  but  of  an  eco- 
nomic value  sufficient  to  make  them  almost  finan- 
cially independent. 

The  first  years  is  given  to  the  growing  and  pre- 
serving of  tomatoes  and  other  simple  market  prod- 
uce. The  second  year  is  supplemented  with  other 
vegetables.  The  third  year  more  vegetables  are 
grown  and  work  is  commenced  on  the  fruits  of  the 
farm.  During  the  fourth  year  the  girls  are  taught 
the  expert  making  of  jellies  and  preserving  of  fruit. 
The  produce  on  which  they  specialize  depends  of 
course  on  that  best  grown  in  some  particular  county. 
In  some  counties  twenty  or  thirty  girls  are  working 
on  Spanish  pepper  and  making  considerable  money 
in  the  preserving  thereof.  The  girls  are  always 
taught  to  standardize  their  work  so  that  whatever 
they  make  has  a  certain  marketable  value. 

When  the  time  of  the  year  makes  it  impossible  for 
the  Agents  to  continue  this  work  the  Clubs  are 
given  cooking  lessons  and  sewing  lessons  by  the 
Agents.  Here  again  the  work  is  of  a  strictly  prac- 
tical kind,  in  so  far  as  the  girls  are  taught  to  make 
their  own  club  uniforms  and  their  own  clothes.  In 
the  cooking  classes  they  are  taught  to  use  the  club 
products  and  to  make  all  kinds  of  breads,  which  is 
extremely  necessary  on  the  farm. 

During  the  fourth  year  the  girl  is  given  permis- 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    137 

sion  to  wear  the  white  uniform  of  the  Agent.  She 
then  has  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  expert  methods 
the  Agent  has  taught  her  to  become  a  leader  of  the 
community. 

This  movement  has  done  a  great  deal  to  make 
domestic  work  popular  among  all  classes  of  young 
girls  and  has  developed  a  conception  of  the  dignity 
and  value  of  such  work.  It  has  also  given  them  a 
sense  of  responsibility  toward  their  sisters  in  the 
community. 

Scholarships  are  now  being  offered  in  many  in- 
stances by  people  of  means  in  different  communi- 
ties, which  allow  the  most  effiicient  girls  of  these 
clubs  to  enter  the  State  Colleges  for  special  courses 
in  order  to  make  them  demonstration  leaders  of 
their  communities.  These  girls  can  then  be  con- 
stantly appealed  to  for  advice  should  the  County 
Agent  not  be  on  the  spot. 

The  interest  which  the  mothers  took  in  the  daugh- 
ters' work  under  the  Home  Demonstration  Agent 
States  brought  about  a  close  cooperation  be- 

Relations  tween  the  older  and  younger  members 
Service.  ^f  ^j^^  community.  Clubs  were  there- 
fore founded  which  are  sometimes  called  *' Mother- 
Daughter"  Canning  Clubs. 

In  one  of  the  clubs  organized  in  1916  there  were 
29  mother-daughter  teams,  or  58  members.  The 
youngest  ''daughter"  was  9  years  of  age,  and  the 
oldest  "daughter"  17.    This  club  held  its  meetings 


138  Use  Your  Government 

every  two  weeks  in  a  local  church.  In  1917  the  num- 
ber of  members  increased  to  400,  and  while  in  1916 
there  were  only  11  such  clubs  there  were  200  of 
them  in  1917. 

As  a  rule  two  meetings  are  held  each  month.  The 
work  of  the  canning  season  was  organized  with  a 
view  to  having  cooperative  canning  parties.  This 
allows  a  convenient  number  of  "Mothers  and 
Daughters ' '  to  meet  at  some  member 's  home  to  con- 
duct their  home  canning.  If  the  club  is  too  large 
to  do  all  its  work  at  one  place  with  a  single  canning 
outfit,  it  is  divided  into  smaller  groups.  Each  group 
then  owns  its  canning  equipment  on  a  cooperative 
basis.  This  results  in  much  greater  economy  and 
efficiency. 

The  following  table  gives  an  idea  of  the  amount 
of  produce  canned  by  a  club  in  Kansas : 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  states  there  is 
a  club  leader  for  both  boys  and  girls.  In  the  South, 
States  however,  while  there  is  a  club  leader 

Relations  for  the  boys,  the  girls'  clubs  are  organ- 
Service.  J2ed  with  the  assistance  of  the  Woman 
Home  Demonstration  Agent.  (See  page  132.)  The 
principle  is  again  the  same,  the  difference  being 
simply  one  of  organization. 

In  the  Southern  states  the  boys'  clubs  (and  in 
the  Northern  and  Western  states  the  girls'  clubs 
also)  are  started  by  a  state  club  leader,  who  ar- 
ranges circulars  and  bulletins  in  a  manner  to  be  in- 


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140 


A  Corn  Club  boy  who  made  a  record  of  228  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre. 


Two  hogs.     Larger  hog  raised  by  boy  under  the  direction  of  County 
Agent  weighed  380  lbs  at  9  months.    Smaller  one  raised  by  his  father. 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    141 

telligible  to  the  boy  and  assist  him  in  carrying  out 
his  club  project. 

Usually  the  state  club  leader  or  one  of  his  assist- 
ants, in  cooperation  with  the  leaders  of  the  com- 
munity, finds  the  names  of  the  boys  who  would  be 
willing  to  take  up  work  in  connection  with  the  pro- 
duction of  some  agricultural  product.  The  boys  are 
then  organized  in  a  group  and  pledge  themselves 
to  follow  the  instructions  given  them  and  make  writ- 
ten reports  of  the  progress  of  the  work. 

The  leader  gathers  the  boys  together  in  a  school 
or  some  place  convenient  to  all  of  them.  They  elect 
a  president,  a  vice-president,  and  a  secretary  for  all 
the  clubs  of  that  particular  community  which  are 
called  its  "Boys  Agricultural  Club."  The  County 
Agent  is  the  instructor  of  these  on  their  plots  and 
the  cooperation  of  the  County  Superintendent  and 
teachers  is  sought  by  him. 

There  are  altogether  40  different  kinds  of  clubs 
averaging  about  9  projects  to  a  state,  but  only  from 
3  to  9  are  undertaken  in  any  one  state.  Each  ac- 
tivity is  specially  suited  to  the  district  in  question, 
the  principal  clubs  being  Corn  Clubs,  Potato  Clubs, 
Garden  Clubs,  Canning  Clubs,  Sugar-beet  Clubs, 
Poultry  Clubs,  Pig  Clubs,  and  Baby-beef  Clubs. 

Corn  Clubs  were  the  first  to  be  organized,  because 
corn  is  a  plant  that  can  be  profitably  produced  in 
most  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  boys 
throughout  the  country  have  common  knowledge  of 


142  Use  Your  Government 

corn  and  the  lessons  seem  easy,  and  also  corn  yields 
more  food  to  the  acre  in  most  sections  of  the  United 
States,  when  properly  handled,  than  any  other  grain 
group. 

Cotton  is  a  standard  crop  in  the  South  and  in 
any  system  of  diversified  farming  must  occupy  an 
important  place.  Therefore,  Cotton  Clubs  have 
been  organized  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  boys 
how  to  make  the  greatest  yield  at  the  lowest  cost. 

One  of  the  most  popular  clubs  started  in  almost 
every  county  for  boys  and  girls,  old  and  young,  are 
the  Poultry  Clubs.  In  connection  with  these  special 
bulletins  are  issued  each  month  entitled  "What  to 
do  with  your  poultry": 

January    . .  How  to  set  a  hen  and  care  for  her. 
February . .  Feeding  and  care  of  chicks. 
March    ....  How  to  build  a  brood  coop. 
April   (a)  Lice  and  mites  on  poultry. 

(b)  Produce  the  infertile  egg. 

(c)  Packing  eggs  in  water  glass. 

May   Care  of  growing  chicks  during  warm  weather. 

June     Marketing  old  stock  and  broilers. 

July Capons  and  caponizing. 

August  ....  Preparing  birds  for  the  show. 

September  .  Common  poultry  diseases. 

October    . .  .  Feeding  and  housing  winter  layers. 

November    .  Tray  nests  for  layers. 

December    .  Selection  and  care  of  breeding  stock. 

These  are  followed  by  bulletins  discussing  the 
marketing  and  canning  of  poultry  which  have  not 
been  sold. 

The  various  clubs  are  also  encouraged  to  hold 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    143 

exhibitions  at  fairs  and  to  enter  into  competition 
with  other  clubs  with  regard  to  their  produce.  Mer- 
chants and  other  public-spirited  citizens  are  invar- 
iably ready  to  raise  funds  for  prizes  to  the  success- 
ful contestant.  The  giving  of  money  prizes  has 
been  discouraged  as  much  as  possible,  pins  and 
badges  having  been  found  ample  incentive  for  com- 
petition. 

(&)      Ojjice  of  Experiment  Stations 

The  Experiment  Stations  are  operated  under  the 
direction  of  the  agricultural  colleges  of  every  state 
States  ^^^  consists  of  a  corps  of  experts  in 

Relations  every  kind  of  work  connected  with  agri- 
Service,  culture  and  farming  in  all  its  aspects. 
Their  studies  are  both  scientific  and  practical  and 
are  made  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  stables  and 
fields  adjoining  the  colleges. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  at  Washington  has  general 
supervision  over  the  experiment  stations  in  the 
various  states  as  far  as  the  Federal  work  is  con- 
cerned. Under  the  provision  of  the  Hatch  and 
Adams  Act  the  Federal  Government  contributes  an- 
nually $30,000  to  each  of  the  48  states  for  the  in- 
vestigation of  agriculture. 

The  publishing  of  the  Experiment  Station  Rec- 
ord forms  an  important  part  of  the  work  of  this 
Division.    It  appears  each  month  and  gives  detailed 


144  Use  Your  Government 

reports  of  all  the  experiments  in  agriculture  con- 
ducted in  the  United  States  and  abroad.  It  is  ar- 
ranged topically,  so  that  those  interested  can  easily 
keep  posted  as  to  experiments  being  tried  out  under 
various  headings  all  over  the  world.  These  ab- 
stracts are  taken  from  reports  of  the  Experiment 
Stations  throughout  the  country,  abroad,  and  from 
other  scientific  institutions.  The  bringing  together 
of  these  in  one  compact  volume  makes  it  easy  for 
the  student  and  farmer  and  investigator  to  obtain 
the  ideas  of  the  entire  world  on  any  agricultural 
subject,  and  also  to  learn  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  in  experiments  relating  to  any  particular  sub- 
ject. In  this  way  much  duplication  of  such  investi- 
gating work  is  spared  and  there  become  available 
throughout  the  country  the  conclusions  of  the  best 
authorities  on  agriculture. 

Should  the  farmer  not  read  the  Experiment  Eec- 
ord  himself  he  still  gets  the  benefit  of  the  informa- 
tion contained  therein  through  the  officers  of  the 
Experiment  Station  Service  and  the  Demonstration 
Agents. 

(c)     Farmers'  Institutes  and  Movable  Schools 

States  Other  methods  of  giving  practical  in- 

Relations       struction  to  the   farmers   are   through 
Service.         h^q   Farmers'   Institutes   and   Movable 
Schools  which  are  described  below. 
The  Farmers'  Institutes  are  meetings  of  farmers 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    145 

at  which  addresses  by  several  persons  are  given 
free  on  various  agricultural  or  home  economics  sub- 
jects of  interest  to  any  particular  community.  The 
speakers  come  from  the  staifs  of  the  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations  or  Colleges  or  are  farmers 
capable  of  telling  others  of  their  success  in  certain 
branches  of  farming. 

The  Farmers '  Institutes  give  instruction  to  about 
3,000,000  farmers  each  year. 

In  the  plan  for  movable  schools  the  colleges  send 
their  men  or  women  teachers  over  the  state  to  in- 
struct in  classes.  They  go  from  place  to  place,  re- 
maining in  each  locality  about  a  week,  carrying 
equipment  for  the  purpose  of  instruction. 

Prior  to  the  organization  of  the  County  Agents' 
work  the  Farmers'  Institutes  were  the  only  means 
available  of  taking  over  to  the  farmers  personally 
the  knowledge  gathered  at  the  college  of  agriculture 
and  the  experiences  of  the  best  farmers  in  the  com- 
munity. As  the  work  of  the  County  Agents  spreads, 
the  movable  school  becomes  a  valuable  adjunct  to 
him  in  getting  the  best  information  from  the  col- 
leges direct  to  the  people. 

{d)      Office  of  Information,  Office  of  Publications 

and  Library 

Office  of  ^^^^  widest  possible  circulation  for 

Informa-  the  discoveries  and  recommendations  of 
tion.  Ijjg  scientists,  specialists,  and  field  work- 


146  Use  Your  Government 

ers  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  given  by  its 
Office  of  Information. 

This  supplies  the  public  press,  the  small  county 
weeklies,  the  farmers'  and  technical  papers  with 
facts  taken  from  publications,  and  also  from  oral 
statements  of  representatives  of  the  Department  in 
a  form  convenient  for  publication  and  designed  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  reader  and  lead  to  the 
adoption  of  the  methods  recommended. 

It  also  keeps  the  public  informed  through  the 
press  as  to  regulatory  and  other  matters  of  which 
the  public  needs  to  know. 

A  weekly  news  letter  is  issued  by  this  Office. 
Its  circulation,  however,  is  limited  to  the  staff  and 
volunteer  workers  of  the  Department,  to  editors,  and 
other  bodies  representing  government  agencies  or 
states. 

Sometimes  a  query  addressed  to  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  correspondence  resulting 
therefrom  will  bring  up  points  of  vital  interest. 
The  Office  of  Information  will  convey  such  data  to 
the  public  at  large  through  the  press  or  in  any  other 
manner  it  may  consider  suitable. 

Postal  Bulletins,  which  are  informal  circulars  got- 
ten out  to  assist  field  agents  or  other  officers  of 
the  Department,  are  prepared  by  this  Office. 

The  Division  of  Publications,  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  is  concerned  with  the  publication  and 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers     147 

OflEices  of  printing  of  bulletins,  pamphlets,  circu- 
Publica-  lars  and  posters  issued  by  the  Depart- 
tions.  ment.    During  the  last  fiscal  year  there 

were  issued  to  the  public  at  large  fifty-five  million 
copies  of  printed  material  of  different  kinds. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  Motion  Picture  Com- 
mittee, the  Office  of  Publications  also  makes  moving 
pictures,  to  be  used  by  the  Demonstration  Agents 
(see  page  125). 

The  method  of  sending  out  publications  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

(1)  The  Division  keeps  a  very  complete  list  of 
those  interested  in  certain  publications  to  whom  they 
are  sent  immediately  on  being  issued. 

(2)  A  monthly  list  of  publications  is  printed,  so 
that  those  desiring  any  particular  one  may  apply 
for  same. 

(3)  Four-fifths  of  the  popular  bulletins  issued 
by  the  various  sub-divisions  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  go  to  members  of  Congress  for  distri-  ^ 
bution,  the  remaining  fifth  being  for  general  distri-  | 
bution. 

(4)  The  Demonstration  Agents  (see  page  125) 
distribute  a  very  large  number  of  the  bulletins,  etc. 
Library  of         "^^e  Library  of  the   Department   of 
Agricul-        Agriculture    comprises    approximately  j 
ture.              140,000  books   and  pamphlets   and  re-  i 
ceives  currently  over  2,300  periodicals.    It  contains 

the  largest  collection  of  literature  in  this  country  on  i 


148  Use  Your  Government  \ 

agriculture  and  the  related  sciences  and  is  in  the  j 
foremost  rank  of  the  agricultural  libraries  of  the  ; 
world.  Although  intended  primarily  for  the  use  | 
of  the  Department,  it  may  in  addition  be  considered  | 
the  national  agricultural  library,  and  as  such  it  at-  i 
tempts  to  place  its  collections  at  the  service  of  all  ; 
who  are  engaged  in  agricultural  research.  j 

The  influence  of  the  Library  on  the  general  wel-  ' 
fare  of  the  farming  community  may  at  first  glance 
seem  very  slight,  yet  on  more  careful  investigation  j 
it  will  become  evident  that  this  influence,  although  | 
indirect,  is  greater  than  might  be  supposed.  It  is, 
of  course,  impossible  for  many  of  the  farmers  of  the  j 
country  to  come  to  Washington  to  consult  the  Li-  j 
brary,  but  it  is  possible  for  the  information  stored  I 
in  the  Library  to  reach  the  farmer  in  an  indirect  ; 
manner.  ] 

In  the  preparation  of  the  publications  of  the  De- 
partment (see  page  147),  the  collections  of  the  Li-     ' 
brary  assist  by  giving  printed  opinions  and  results 
of  the  experience  of  past  investigators  all  over  the     \ 
world. 

Through  its  relation  with  the  agricultural  Experi- 
ment Stations  and  Colleges,  the  Library  is  attempt- 
ing to  be  of  assistance  to  those  workers  in  agricul- 
tural science  who  are  located  near  the  farmer  and 
are  thus  familiar  with  his  interests. 

But  the  Library  is  especially  useful  indirectly  to 
the  agricultural  community  through  the  assistance 


Disseminating  Information  to  Farmers    149 

rendered  to  the  scientific  workers  in  the  Department 
in  connection  with  their  researches. 

Printed  cards  for  the  publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment are  prepared  by  the  Library  and  can  be  ob- 
tained at  small  cost  from  the  Library  of  Congress. 


I 


'i 


I 


PART  II 
THE  WOULD-BE  SETTLER 


i 


CHAPTER  I.— THE  DISPOSITION  OF  PUBLIC 

LANDS 

General  "^^e  General  Land  Office  has  full  charge 
Land  of  the  survey  and  disposition  of  the  pub- 

Office.  i[q  lands  and  the  administration  of  the 

public  land  laws. 

Ever  since  1862  the  controlling  principle  of  prac- 
tically all  the  laws  passed  by  Congress  with  regard 
to  the  handling  of  public  lands  has  been  for  their 
development,  improvement,  greater  production  and 
for  the  interest  of  self-owned  farm  homes.  Prior  to 
that  time,  the  public  lands  had  existed  largely  for 
the  main  purpose  of  securing  money  for  the  support 
of  the  Government.  It  became  apparent  that  this 
was  not  an  enlightened  policy,  for  it  induced  more 
to  speculation  and  monopoly  than  to  home-building 
and  development.  An  indication  of  this  tendency  is 
found  in  the  first  preemption  law  of  1841,  but  the 
real  home-building  policy  did  not  commence  until 
the  enactment  of  the  first  homestead  law  in  1862,  the 
essential  features  of  which  obtain  to  this  day.  Un- 
der this  law  more  than  any  other  has  the  great  Mis- 
sissippi Valley,  Middle  West  and  West  been  built  up. 

Briefly,  the  Homestead  Law  gave  the  land  free  to 

153 


154  Use  Your  Government 

the  man  who  would  make  his  home  on  it  and  develop 
and  improve  same.  A  little  later  the  mining  law 
gave  the  land  for  the  mere  staking  thereof  to  the 
man  who  made  a  discovery  of  mineral.  A  little  later 
the  coal  land  laws  followed  much  the  same  policy. 
The  desert-land  laws  gave  the  land  at  a  nominal 
price  to  the  man  who  would  reclaim  the  land  and 
irrigate  and  cultivate  it. 

To  provide  means  of  transportation  to  open  up 
the  new  country,  Congress  made  immense  land 
grants  of  millions  of  acres  to  induce  the  construc- 
tion of  railroads  and  wagon  roads.  To  aid  the  new 
states  in  laying  a  sure  foundation  for  education, 
each  was  given  a  large  grant  of  public  lands,  the 
proceeds  of  which  were  to  be  used  for  educational 
purposes ;  this  laid  the  basis  for  the  large  interest- 
bearing  school  funds  possessed  by  nearly  all  the 
states. 

Congress  gave  the  swamp  lands  to  the  states  in 
which  they  were  situated  on  condition  that  such 
lands  should  be  reclaimed  from  their  swampy  con- 
dition and  made  cultivable,  and  likewise  gave  lands 
to  the  arid  states  on  condition  that  the  lands  be  ir- 
rigated. Thus  is  seen  the  principle  of  development 
running  through  all  of  these  laws.  Congress  early 
saw  that  production,  population,  homes,  cities  and 
railroads  were  to  be  preferred  to  the  comparatively 
small  amount  of  money  that  might  be  secured  for 
the  Government  if  that  were  made  the  principal  end 


TJie  Disposition  of  Public  Lands        155 

in  view.  The  Office  lias  therefore  developed  from  a 
mere  selling  agency  into  an  administrative  and  ju- 
dical bureau  of  the  Government. 

At  the  present  time  the  organization  of  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office  consists  of  the  Washington  Office, 
99  local  land  offices,  situated  principally  in  the  West- 
ern states,  13  Surveyors  General,  the  Field  Survey- 
ing Organization,  and  the  Field  Service  Organiza- 
tion. Each  of  these  branches  has  its  special  func- 
tions to  perform,  but  the  work  of  all  branches  is  cor- 
related. 

The  main  office  at  Washington  is  the  supervising 
clearing  house  over  the  other  branches.  The  local 
land  offices  are  the  places  where  the  public  secures 
information  and  makes  entries  and  proofs  on  public 
lands ;  each  has  a  Register  and  Receiver,  the  former 
acting  in  an  administrative  and  judicial  capacity, 
and  the  latter  in  a  fiscal  capacity.  The  Field  Sur- 
veying Organization  performs  the  field  work  of  sur- 
veying the  public  lands.  Since  1910  this  has  all  been 
done  directly  by  government  employees  rather  than 
by  contract  as  formerly,  the  results  being  more  sat- 
isfactory. The  offices  of  Surveyors  General  pre- 
pare instructions  for  field  surveys  and  plats  and 
field  notes  of  surveys  that  have  been  made,  for  the 
purpose  of  a  permanent  record.  The  Field  Service 
Organization  is  an  investigating  force,  the  principal 
business  of  which  is  to  investigate  frauds  and  ascer- 
tain if  the  law  has  been  complied  with,  as  well  as  to 


156  Use  Your  Government 

make  niimerous  examinations  for  purposes  of  ap- 
praisal and  classification. 

The  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1917,  shows  that 
during  that  year  more  than  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-three thousand  of  original  selections  and  entries 
of  public  lands  were  made;  more  than  fifty-four 
thousand  patents  were  issued,  conveying  an  area  of 
11,300,000  acres;  the  survey  of  more  than  ten  mil- 
lion acres  approved  and  accepted,  and  some  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  thousand  acres  restored  to  the 
public  domain  after  investigation  in  the  field,  be- 
sides the  determination  of  some  six  thousand  con- 
tests and  proceedings  for  the  settlement  and  dispo- 
sition of  various  forms  of  disputed  claims  to  the 
public  lands. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  stated  that,  subject 
to  the  supervisory  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  the  General  Land  Office  is  the  court  in 
which  is  settled  and  determined  all  controversies  be- 
tween rival  claimants  to  the  public  lands.  Thus  the 
General  Land  Office  performs  a  semi-judicial  func- 
tion probably  larger  in  point  of  number  of  cases  and 
values  involved  than  any  court  in  the  country.  Dur- 
ing more  recent  years  this  office  has  assumed  larger 
duties  in  what  might  be  termed  an  administrative 
capacity,  such  as  preservation  and  protection  of  the 
public  lands  and  the  making  and  supervising  of 
leases  and  permits  of  various  kinds. 


The  Disposition  of  Public  Lands        157 

As  to  the  particular  opportunities  offered  by  the 
public-land  laws  as  they  exist  to-day : 

First,  as  to  the  homestead  law,  a  person  may  file 
on  a  homestead  of  160  acres  of  ordinary  land,  of 
320  acres  of  so-called  dry-farming  land,  and  of  640 
acres  of  grazing  land.  There  are  numerous  provis- 
ions in  the  law  for  different  forms  of  so-called  ad- 
ditional entries  for  those  who  have  less  than  the 
maximum  area  of  the  different  classes  of  land.  Un- 
der all  of  these  laws  the  homesteader  is  required  to 
place  a  habitable  house  on  the  land  and  to  make  his 
home  thereon  to  the  exclusion  of  a  home  elsewhere, 
and  actually  live  on  the  land  not  less  than  seven 
months  out  of  each  year  for  a  period  of  three  years. 
He  is  also  required  to  cultivate  not  less  than  one- 
eighth  of  the  land,  except  on  the  stock-raising  home- 
stead, where  he  is  required  to  make  certain  improve- 
ments in  lieu  of  cultivation.  Having  done  these 
things,  the  homesteader  makes  his  proper  proof 
thereof  and  gets  title  to  the  land  without  cost  or 
expense  except  for  certain  fees  and  commissions  for 
handling  the  business.  Only  citizens  of  the  United 
States  who  are  over  21  years  of  age  or  are  heads  of 
families  are  entitled  to  this  privilege  and  no  person 
is  entitled  to  more  than  one  homestead. 

Still  another  form  of  homestead  is  found  in  the 
so-called  reclamation  homestead  (see  page  161), 
which  is  a  homestead  made  within  the  area  of  a 
government  irrigation  project,  in  which  case  the 


158  Use  Your  Government 

homesteader  is  permitted  to  take  an  area  not  greater 
than  the  "farm  unit"  fixed  for  the  project,  and  to 
pay  to  the  Government  the  cost  of  a  water  right  and 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  irrigation  system,  the 
main  charge  being  spread  over  a  period  of  twenty 
years,  without  interest. 

Another  modification  of  the  homestead  is  the  so- 
called  forest  homestead,  where  an  entry  is  allowed 
on  a  limited  area,  chiefly  valuable  for  agricultural 
purposes,  within  the  confines  of  a  national  forest. 

Under  the  desert-land  laws  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  may  enter  320  acres;  he  pays  twenty-five 
cents  an  acre  down  on  making  his  entry  and  $1.00 
per  acre  additional  when  he  makes  final  proof  four 
years  later.  In  the  meantime  he  must  spend  not  less 
than  $1.00  per  acre  per  year  on  the  land  looking  to 
its  reclamation.  He  must  procure  a  sufficient  water 
supply  for  the  permanent  reclamation  of  all  the  ir- 
rigable portions  thereof  and  must  have  cultivated  at 
least  one-eighth  of  the  land  by  irrigation  before  he 
can  procure  title.  No  residence  on  the  land  is  re- 
quired. Under  a  modification  of  this  law,  known  as 
the  Carey  Act,  lands  are  granted  to  arid  states  on 
condition  that  the  states  shall  procure  the  reclama- 
tion of  the  lands  and  dispose  of  same  to  actual  set- 
tlers, not  more  than  160  acres  to  each.  Idaho, 
Wyoming  and  Montana  have  accomplished  the  lar- 
gest and  most  satisfactory  results  under  this  form  of 
procedure. 


The  Disposition  of  Public  Lands        159 

The  mining  laws  have  not  changed  much  since  the 
enactment  of  the  general  mining  code  of  1872.  Un- 
der these  laws  title  has  its  inception  in  discovery. 
A  man  who  discovers  a  lode  mine  may  locate  a  claim 
of  approximately  20  acres  on  each  discovery  made. 
To  retain  this  claim  he  must  perform  at  least  $100 
worth  of  work  thereon  each  year.  When  he  has 
performed  $500  worth  of  work  on  a  claim  he  may 
receive  patent  on  the  payment  of  $5.00  per  acre. 
Under  the  placer  mining  laws,  which  now  include 
petroleum,  a  person  may  locate  20  acres,  or  an  as- 
sociation of  persons  not  exceeding  eight  may  lo- 
cate an  association  claim  of  not  more  than  20  acres 
for  each  person  in  the  association.  On  the  perform- 
ance of  $500  worth  of  work  and  improvements  on 
the  claim,  patent  may  be  granted  on  the  payment  of 
$2.50  per  acre. 

Under  the  coal  land  laws,  a  person  may  file  on 
160  acres  and  may  receive  patent  on  payment  of  the 
appraised  value.  Likewise  a  person  may  file  on  160 
acres  of  timber  land  on  the  payment  of  the  appraised 
value  thereof.  The  more  valuable  timber  lands  have 
been  placed  in  forest  reserves,  the  timber  being  sold 
outright  from  time  to  time  as  the  market  requires. 
Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  existing  laws 
with  respect  to  coal,  oil,  gas,  potash,  phosphates  and 
nitrates  no  longer  meet  the  demands  of  the  indus- 
tries based  on  these  resources,  and  Congress  has 
had  under  serious  consideration  radical  changes  in 


160  Use  Your  Government 

the  laws  relating  to  these  minerals  and  has  already 
passed  a  comprehensive  coal  leasing  law  for  Alaska, 
and  a  law  for  leasing  potash  lands  in  the  states.  The 
impracticability  of  existing  oil  land  laws  is  the  basic 
cause  of  the  recent  unfortunate  controversy  over 
our  public  oil  lands  and  production. 

There  are  many  other  public  land  laws,  but  those 
above  touched  upon  are  by  far  the  most  important 
to  the  country  at  large. 

The  Information  Division  of  the  Department  of 
Labor  has  ascertained  the  lands  still  available  for 
Department  the  "would-be  settler"  all  over  the 
of  Labor.  United  States.  This  Division  has  a 
complete  record  of  all  lands  either  to  be  had  free 
or  for  sale.  It  is  thus  able  to  place  men  who  seek 
land  in  touch  with  the  parties  who  have  the  same 
at  their  disposal. 


} 


Roosevelt  Dam,  Arizona.  Principal  engineering  feature  of  the  Salt 
River  Valley  where  200,000  acres  have  been  reclaimed  through  tlie 
Reclamation  Sei-vice. 


-P- 


A   group   of   small   farms   reclaimed   from   desert    liy    the   Reclamation 

Service. 


CHAPTER   IL— IRRIGATION   OF    ARID    DIS- 
TRICTS  AT  ACTUAL  COST 

The  Reclamation  Service  is  engaged  in  making  the 
arid  lands  of  the  West  fit  for  cultivation  by  means 
Reclama-  ^^  irrigation,  the  lands  then  being 
tion  thrown  open  for  entry  to  applicants  at 

Service.  ^j^g  actual  cost  of  construction  per  acre. 
The  patents  for  these  lands  are  granted  by  the  Gen- 
eral Land  Office.    (See  page  153.) 

The  Government  is  spending  millions  of  dollars 
in  furnishing  an  adequate  water  supply  for  these 
regions.  Its  engineering  works  are  stupendous  in 
character  and  include  several  of  the  largest  storage 
dams  in  the  world,  as  well  as  thousands  of  miles  of 
great  canals.  Since  its  creation  in  1902,  the  bureau 
has  reclaimed  1,250,000  acres  of  desert,  has  estab- 
lished 30,000  families  in  homes  of  their  own,  the  an- 
nual harvests  from  these  reclaimed  lands  having  a 
value  of  nearly  $50,000,000. 

The  fund  provided  for  this  work  is  formed  from 
fees  derived  from  the  disposal  of  public  lands  in  the 
16  states  benefited,  and  as  the  settlers  repay  the  cost 
the  receipts  are  returned  to  the  fund  for  other  work. 
The  investment  at  present  exceeds  $120,000,000. 

161 


162  Use  Your  Government 

Conditions  for  the  taking  over  of  irrigated  lands 
are  that  the  applicant  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  must  not  have  a  farm  elsewhere,  must  live  on 
his  ground  for  a  period  of  three  years,  and  must 
pay  the  Government  the  cost  of  the  irrigation  sys- 
tem on  his  farm  in  instalments  covering  a  period  of 
20  years  without  interest. 

The  prices  differ,  but  they  average  $50  per  acre, 
becoming  the  actual  property  of  the  settler  with  a 
perpetual  water  right.  The  Government  merely 
provides  the  land  and  water  system,  the  farmer 
needing  sufficient  capital  to  pay  for  his  house,  stock, 
etc.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  directly  he  be- 
gins to  plant  his  crop  his  acres  usually  rapidly  in- 
crease in  value  from  year  to  year.  And  for  these 
areas  he  has  only  paid  the  Government  a  small  ad- 
vance on  the  cost  of  irrigation. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  railways  have  in 
each  case  connected  up  with  these  Government  com- 
munities, generally  in  advance  of  the  settlers  in  or- 
der to  provide  the  necessary  transportation  facili- 
ties in  anticipation  of  the  large  quantity  of  tonnage 
to  follow. 

In  instances  where  the  Government  has  been  re- 
quested so  to  do,  it  has  provided  lands  for  consoli- 
dated schools  and  community  center  sites  for  clubs, 
etc.,  also  giving  the  water  supply  needed  for  these, 
which  is  of  great  service. 

Instead  of  each  district  having  its  own  school  in 


Irrigation  of  Arid  Districts  at  Cost      163 

the  one  teacher  system,  the  Government  is  encour- 
aging the  building  of  one  large  school  to  provide  a 
centralized  graded  school  system  according  to  con- 
ditions existing  in  the  particular  state.  The  chil- 
dren are  then  to  be  brought  to  the  schools  by  vans, 
autos,  trolley  lines,  or  other  means  of  transporta- 
tion, also  kept  up  on  a  community  basis. 

In  settlements  where  the  Government  has  devel- 
oped electric  power  for  its  own  projects,  the  sur- 
plus power  is  sold  to  the  settlers  at  cost.  In  some 
of  these  far-away  communities  the  houses  are  lit 
with  electricity,  even  the  cooking,  churning,  sewing 
machines,  etc.,  being  worked  by  this  power.  Stores 
and  homes  are  even  frequently  heated  by  electricity. 

The  Reclamation  Service  receives  the  cooperation 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Ag- 
Bureau  of  ricultural  Colleges  with  regard  to  as- 
Plant  sistance  given  farmers  on  these  irrigat- 

Industry.  ^^  j^^ds.  For  the  last  15  years  it  has 
been  carrying  on  very  careful  experiments  in  meth- 
ods of  farming  irrigated  areas,  and  has  now  pub- 
lished a  general  basis  for  agricultural  work  for  the 
settlers  who  very  often  have  no  knowledge  or  ex- 
perience whatsoever  of  the  practical  work  that  will 
be  required  of  them. 

A  demonstration  farm,  conducted  by  experts,  is 
maintained  on  almost  every  project,  many  of  the 
farmers  being  so  untrained  that  practical  demon- 
stration is  needed  in  order  that  no  time  should  be 


164  Use  Your  Government 

lost  if  the  settlers '  small  capital  is  to  be  saved.  The 
method  of  working  with  a  farmer  was  very  similar 
to  the  work  done  by  the  Demonstration  Agents. 
(See  page  125.) 


CHAPTER  III.— THE  FOREST  SERVICE 
WORK  FOR  THE  SETTLER 

Among  the  resources  of  the  National  Forests  are 
minerals.  Lands  in  the  National  Forests  may  be 
Forest  prospected  upon  and  mined  as  freely  as 

Service.  though  they  were  on  the  open  public 
lands  and  a  prospector  can  stake  a  claim  wherever 
he  finds  evidence  of  valuable  minerals. 

The  conditions  for  the  taking  up  of  a  mining  claim 
are  those  which  prevail  under  the  ''Mining  Laws" 
administered  by  the  General  Land  Office.  (See 
page  154.) 

The  only  restriction  is  that  the  claims  must  be 
bona  fide  ones  and  not  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of 
acquiring  valuable  timber  or  a  town  or  power  site, 
or  to  monopolize  the  water  supply  on  stock  range. 
Prospectors  may  obtain  a  certain  amount  of  Na- 
tional Forest  timber  free  of  charge,  to  be  used  in  de- 
veloping their  claims.  More  than  426  mineral  claims 
were  patented  within  the  National  Forests  during 
the  year  1917. 

Land  more  valuable  for  agriculture  than  for  tim- 
ber is  excluded  from  the  National  Forests  so  far  as 
is  possible  when  the  boundaries  are  drawn.  Small 
tracts  of  land  which  cannot  be  thus  excluded  are 

165 


166  Use  Your  Government 

open  for  settlement  under  the  Forest  Homestead 
Act.  (See  page  157.)  The  chances  offered  the 
prospective  settler  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  forest  are  far  better  than  in  the  forests  them- 
selves. 

Homestead  settlers  may  obtain  National  Forest 
timber  for  their  own  use  at  the  actual  cost  of  mak- 
ing the  sales,  no  charges  being  made  for  the  timber 
itself. 

The  Forest  Service  helps  the  settler  by  building 
trails,  roads,  and  bridges,  constructing  telephone 
lines,  by  protecting  the  forests  from  fire  (see  page 
46),  and  other  ways. 

All  the  benefits  that  the  Forest  Service  offers  the 
farmer  would  also  apply  to  the  settler.  (See  page 
45.) 


CHAPTER   IV.— THE   WORK   OF   THE   GEO- 
LOGICAL SURVEY 

Geological  The  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  is 
Service.  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  set- 
tler in  every  phase  of  his  work  and  choice  of  land. 
This  subject  is  dealt  with  in  detail  (see  page  215). 


167 


PART  in 

THE  MAN  IN  BUSINESS 


.Jj 


CHAPTER  L— GENERAL  ASSISTANCE  AND 
INFORMATION  GIVEN  TO  THOSE  TRANS- 
ACTING BUSINESS  AT  HOME  AND 

ABROAD 

-,,  The  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic 

Bureau  of  Commerce  is  charged  by  law  with  the 
Foreign  and  duty  of  developing  the  various  manu- 

Domestic       facturing  industries  of  the  United  States 

Commerce.         i         t    i     p      ,1    •  j     i.      j.  i 

and  markets  tor  their  products  at  home 

and  abroad  by  gathering  and  publishing  useful  in- 
formation or  by  any  other  available  methods. 

The  Bureau  is,  therefore,  in  the  first  instance,  a 
clearing  house  for  commercial  information  of  all 
kinds  and  has  a  well-organized  and  efficient  system 
for  its  collection  and  distribution. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  can  be  divided  as  fol- 
lows : 

"Trade  Opportunity"  Service.  The  Bureau  fur- 
nishes American  manufacturers  and  exporters  defi- 
nite information  as  to  specific  opportunities  to  seU 
their  goods  in  foreign  markets  and  places  them  in 
touch  with  firms  and  individuals  in  other  countries 
who  are  in  a  position  to  act  as  agents  or  representa- 
tives in  their  districts.    Announcements  of  such  op- 

171 


172  Use  Your  Government 

portunities  are  published  in  the  daily  ''Commerce 
Keports."  (See  page  177.)  The  names  and  ad- 
dresses of  foreign  concerns  desiring  goods  of  agen- 
cies are  not  given  in  these  announcements,  but  are 
furnished  to  bona  fide  American  firms  upon  appli- 
cation to  the  Bureau  at  Washington,  or  to  any  of 
its  district  or  cooperative  offices. 

In  applying  for  such  names  and  addresses  the  in- 
quirer need  only  refer  to  the  number  of  the  an- 
nouncement as  published  in  "Commerce  Reports.'* 

A  separate  application  on  the  firm's  letterhead 
should  be  made  for  each  "Opportunity"  desired. 
The  following  may  be  considered  typical  of  the 
"Opportunities"  published  in  "Commerce  Re- 
ports": 

359709. — A  man  in  New  Zealand  is  in  the  mar- 
ket for  trotting  goods,  such  as  hobbles,  pads, 
gaiters,  etc.  Quotations  should  be  made  F.O.B. 
steamer,  port  of  shipment.  Cash  will  be  paid 
with  order. 

The  American  manufacturer  of  trotting  goods 
who  thinks  it  worth  while  to  make  such  a  connection 
will,  upon  seeing  the  notice  in  "Commerce  Re- 
ports," w^rite  to  the  Bureau  on  his  business  letter- 
head asking  to  be  furnished  the  name  and  address. 
If  the  Bureau  sees  no  reason  for  withholding  the 
information,  it  sends  it  forward  at  once. 

Following  is  an  "Opportunity"  to  establish  a 
business  connection  in  Brazil: 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    173 

35613. — An  Agency  is  desired  by  a  firm  in 
Brazil  for  the  sale  of  industrial  chemicals,  caus- 
tic soda,  soda  ash,  acetic  acid  suitable  for  the 
textile  and  soap  industries,  and  all  kinds  of 
dyes  suitable  for  cotton  textile  industry.  All 
business  is  desired  on  a  commission  basis.  Cash 
will  be  paid.  Shipments  are  preferred  through 
some  reputable  export  house  which  understands 
documentation  for  Brazil.  Correspondence  may 
be  in  English.    Reference. 

When  the  confidential  information  furnished  re- 
garding an  ''Opportunity"  for  sales  in  foreign 
countries  is  too  detailed  to  be  given  in  a  ''Trade 
Opportunity"  announcement,  it  is  embodied  in  a 
confidential  bulletin  or  circular,  which  is  sent  to 
firms  that  are  listed  in  the  trade  index  files  main- 
tained by  the  Bureau  in  its  district  and  in  cooperat- 
ive offices. 

Samples,  specifications,  etc.,  that  accompany  re- 
ports from  Consular  officers,  Special  Agents,  and 
Commercial  Attaches  are  sent  to  the  district  and  co- 
operative offices  for  limited  periods,  where  they  can 
be  inspected  by  those  interested. 

The  information  upon  which  the  "Trade  Oppor- 
tunity" service  is  based  is  collected  and  forwarded 
to  the  Bureau  by  mail  or  cable  by  Consular  officers, 
Special  Agents,  and  Commercial  Attaches. 

Sources  of  Foreign  Trade  Facts.  The  Bureau 
has  three  principal  sources  from  which  it  obtains 
trade  information  from  foreign  countries. 


174  Use  Your  Government 

First,  Consular  Service.  (See  page  184.)  The 
United  States  Government  maintains  abroad  nearly 
three  hundred  Consular  offices,  and  in  addition  many- 
agencies.  These  are  all  under  the  direction  of  the 
State  Department,  but  the  commercial  information 
gathered  through  the  ' '  field  force "  is  by  law  turned 
over  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce for  distribution  as  it  sees  fit.  The  commercial 
information  from  this  source  includes  annual  re- 
views of  commerce,  special  reports  on  timely  and  im- 
portant subjects  called  for  by  the  Bureau,  lists  of 
importers,  notices  of  bids  for  contract  work,  re- 
quests of  merchants  to  be  placed  in  communication 
with  American  exporters,  etc. 

Second,  Special  Agents.  Most  of  these  men  are 
taken  from  active  work  in  some  particular  industry 
or  some  special  branch  of  commerce  and  are  experts 
in  their  respective  lines.  They  are  assigned  to  cer- 
tain specified  districts  such  as  the  Far  East  or  South 
America,  and  are  required  to  report  on  the  require- 
ments of  the  markets  for  the  lines  that  they  are  in- 
vestigating, including  the  methods  of  merchandising 
and  the  character  of  the  competition  which  may  be 
expected.  Local  methods  of  manufacture  are  also 
studied.  The  scope  of  such  investigations  has  re- 
cently been  broadened  to  include  studies  of  economic 
and  financial  conditions.  Special  Agents  are  also 
known  as  Commercial  Agents,  or  Trade  Commis-. 
sioners. 


Information  Criven  to  the  Business  Man    175 

Third,  Commercial  Attaches.  While  stationed  at 
one  post,  like  the  Consular  officer,  the  Commercial 
Attache  is  free  to  travel  in  the  field  to  which  he  is 
assigned.  He  has  but  one  function,  the  facilitation 
of  commerce  between  the  United  States  and  the 
countries  which  are  included  in  his  district.  Un- 
like the  Consular  officer,  he  is  free  from  such  routine 
work  as  invoicing  exports  to  the  United  States  and 
looking  after  the  wants  of  fellow-countrymen.  If 
necessary,  he  can  drop  everything  else  and  devote 
his  entire  attention  to  some  one  important  trade  de- 
velopment. He  has  been  termed  a  ''trade  diplo- 
mat.'* 

Commercial  Attaches  are  stationed  at  London, 
Paris,  Berlin  (normally),  Petrograd,  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Buenos  Aires,  Lima,  Peking,  Tokyo,  and  Melbourne. 

In  addition  to  writing  reports  to  be  published  and 
distributed  by  the  Bureau,  the  Consular  officers. 
Special  Agents,  and  Commercial  Attaches  return  to 
the  United  States  at  convenient  intervals  and  visit 
the  principal  manufacturing  and  commercial  cen- 
ters, where  they  address  commercial  organizations 
and  give  personal  interviews  to  manufacturers  and 
exporters.  These  itineraries  are  arranged  by  the 
Bureau  at  Washington,  but  the  details  of  arranging 
for  addresses  and  interviews  are  worked  out  by  the 
District  and  Cooperative  offices,  whose  business  it 
is  to  keep  in  close  personal  touch  with  the  business 
interests  in  their  communities. 


176  Use  Your  Government 

Collection  of  Samples.  The  samples  purchased 
by  the  Consuls,  Agents,  and  Attaches  are  first  ex- 
hibited in  the  principal  manufacturing  centers  and 
then  housed  permanently  in  what  is  known  as  the 
"Sample  Room"  at  the  New  York  Customs  House. 
These  samples  consist  for  the  most  part  of  articles 
that  are  successfully  sold  in  foreign  markets.  For 
example,  a  special  Agent  who  has  studied  the  cotton 
goods  markets  in  all  parts  of  the  world  has  for- 
warded samples  of  the  goods  in  demand  in  each 
market,  with  data  as  to  cost,  wholesale  and  retail 
prices,  measurements,  country  of  origin,  etc.  In  the 
course  of  a  recent  investigation  of  the  world's  hard- 
ware markets,  conducted  by  the  Commercial  At- 
tache, samples  of  hardware  were  purchased  in  all 
countries  and  with  complete  data  now  form  a  part 
of  the  permanent  exhibit.  Such  samples  are  con- 
sulted by  manufacturers  and  exporters  who  wish  to 
estimate  the  character  of  the  competition  they  have 
to  meet  in  new  markets  and  the  tastes  of  the  con- 
sumers. 

The  Bureau  also  receives  numerous  official  and 
other  publications  from  foreign  countries  which  are 
utilized  in  answering  requests  for  information.  It 
also  avails  itself  of  trade  journals  published  in  this 
country  and  the  assistance  of  commercial  organiza- 
tions. 

Publications.  Information  collected  by  the  Bu- 
reau is  distributed  chiefly  through  its  publications, 


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Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    177 

which  include  a  daily  trade  newspaper,  monthly, 
quarterly,  annual  statistical  publications,  and  spe- 
cial bulletins. 

The  daily  trade  newspaper  is  called  Commerce 
Reports.  It  contains  articles  submitted  by  the 
Consular  officers,  Special  Agents,  and  Commercial 
Attaches,  and  trade  information  from  other  sources. 
At  least  a  page  each  day  is  devoted  to  the  ''Trade 
Opportunity"  service.  (See  page  171.)  It  is  the 
organ  through  which  current  information  on  foreign 
trade  matters  is  distributed  to  American  business 
men.  It  is  sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Docu- 
ments, Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  for 
$2.50  per  year.  (Subscriptions  may  also  be  received 
at  the  District  and  Cooperative  offices.)  The  annual 
reports  of  Consular  officers  formerly  published  in 
this  daily  journal  now  are  issued  as  Supplements  to 
it  and  are  mailed  to  all  subscribers. 

A  publication  known  as  Monthly/  Summary  of 
Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United  States  gives  the 
imports  and  exports  of  the  United  States  by  coun- 
tries of  origin  and  destination,  articles,  quantities, 
and  values  for  the  month  of  issue  and  for  the  ac- 
cumulated period  of  the  year  ending  with  the  month 
of  issue,  with  comparative  figures  for  corresponding 
periods  in  the  two  preceding  years.  It  is  sold  by 
the  Superintendent  of  Documents  for  15  cents  t)er 
copy,  or  $1.50  per  year. 

Imports  Entered  for  Consumption,  which  is  is- 


178  Use  Your  Government 

sued  quarterly,  gives  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
quantity  and  value  of  imports  entered  for  consump- 
tion into  the  United  States,  the  rates  of  duty  and 
the  amount  of  duty  collected.  It  is  sold  by  the  Su- 
perintendent of  Documents  for  75  cents  a  year; 
single  copies  15  cents  to  25  cents. 

''Commerce  and  Navigation"  is  the  title  of  an 
annual  volume  of  about  900  quarto  pages,  which 
gives  detailed  statistics  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
United  States,  stating  the  countries  to  which  each 
article  or  class  of  articles  was  exported  and  from 
which  each  article  or  class  of  articles  was  imported 
during  a  five-year  period.  It  is  sold  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Documents  for  $1. 

''Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States"  is  an 
annual  volume  of  about  800  pages  containing  a  con- 
densed statement  of  the  commerce  production,  in- 
dustries, population,  finance,  currency,  and  wealth 
of  the  country,  with  summary  statements  of  the 
commerce  of  the  principal  foreign  countries.  It  is 
sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents  for  50 
cents. 

Bulletins  on  Special  Subjects.  Special  bulletins 
published  by  the  Bureau  embrace  a  wide  range  of 
subjects  and  range  from  16  to  more  than  500  pages. 
Some  present  a  survey  of  the  entire  world's  mar- 
kets for  certain  lines  of  goods ;  others  contain  an  in- 
tensive study  of  particular  fields  and  particular 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    179 

lines;  still  others  furnish  a  general  study  of  some 
country  or  groups  of  countries. 

For  instance,  bulletins  have  been  issued  on  the 
cotton  goods  trade  of  almost  every  country  in  the 
world ;  other  bulletins  deal  with  cottonseed  oil,  lum- 
ber, shoes  and  leather,  machine  tools,  paints  and  var- 
nishes, motor  vehicles,  musical  instruments,  canned 
goods,  etc. 

In  1911  the  Bureau  issued  a  Trade  Directory  of 
the  World,  and  in  1914  and  1915  the  sections  of  this 
World  Trade  Directory  covering  South  America  and 
Central  America  and  the  West  Indies  were  revised 
and  published  as  separate  directories  under  the 
titles  "Trade  Directory  of  South  America"  and 
' '  Trade  Directory  of  Central  America  and  the  West 
Indies."  The  World  Trade  Directory  issued  in 
1911  is  of  course  out  of  date  and  its  use  at  this  time 
is  not  recommended.  The  supply  of  the  Latin- 
American  directories  is  also  exhausted.  Copies  of 
these  directories  are,  however,  available  for  exami- 
nation at  the  Bureau's  District  and  Cooperative  of- 
fices and  at  the  principal  commercial  organizations 
in  the  United  States. 

In  transmitting  reports  on  markets  for  specified 
commodities  in  foreign  countries,  American  Consu- 
lar officers  and  the  Bureau's  traveling  representa- 
tives frequently  accompany  these  reports  with  lists 
of  importers  and  dealers  in  the  respective  lines  un- 
der discussion.    These  lists  are  not  published  in  the 


180  Use  Your  Government 

"Commerce  Keports"  but  are  referred  to  by  number 
at  the  close  of  the  article,  with  the  suggestion  that 
interested  firms  and  individuals  may  obtain  the  list 
on  application  by  number  to  the  Bureau  or  any  of 
its  District  or  Cooperative  offices.  The  Bureau  has 
naturally  accumulated  in  this  way  quite  a  collection 
of  possible  purchasers  of  American  goods  in  foreign 
countries.  These  accumulated  lists  are  classified 
and  are  available  on  request. 

Statistical  Division.  The  Statistical  Division  of 
the  Bureau  is  the  original  source  of  statistics  of 
American  trade  with  foreign  countries.  Export  sta- 
tistics are  compiled  from  the  declaration  required 
from  exporters  by  the  Customs  Division  of  the 
Treasury  Department  and  the  import  statistics  are 
based  upon  invoices  that  are  received  at  the  Cus- 
toms Houses  as  a  part  of  the  routine  of  collecting  the 
customs  on  imports.  Returns  from  all  the  Customs 
Houses  are  received  at  Washington  and  the  various 
compilations  based  on  them  are  published  periodi- 
cally (see  statistical  publications  described  on  page 
178). 

Division  of  Foreign  Tariffs.  This  Division  fur- 
nishes the  American  exporter  with  information  as  to 
customs  and  other  entrance  requirements  imposed 
by  foreign  countries.  It  also  specializes  on  foreign 
patent  and  trade-mark  legislation,  and  recently  has 
taken  steps  to  protect  American  holders'  trade- 
marks against  infringement  in  other  countries.  For 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    181 

instance,  in  some  countries  the  ownership  of  a  trade- 
mark is  based  on  priority  of  registration  and  not  of 
use,  as  is  the  case  in  the  United  States,  so  that  a  per- 
son who  registers  the  mark  first  has  the  right  to 
keep  the  rightful  owner  from  importing  into  the 
country  goods  bearing  the  registered  trade-mark. 
The  Division  of  Foreign  Tariffs  now  scrutinizes 
carefully  all  applications  for  trade-marks  in  certain 
countries.  When  it  finds  an  application  for  the  reg- 
istration of  our  American  trade-mark  or  a  close  imi- 
tation, it  notifies  the  American  owner  of  the  mark, 
explains  to  him  the  main  features  of  the  trade-mark 
laws  in  the  country  in  question,  and  urges  him  to 
protest  the  registration. 

The  Division  obtains  information  from  the  Con- 
suls, Agents  and  Commercial  Attaches  and  from 
foreign  official  journals,  newspapers,  and  other  pub- 
lications. 

Mediation  in  Commercial  Disputes.  Through  the 
Consuls,  Special  Agents,  and  Commercial  Attaches 
abroad  and  its  district  offices  at  home  the  Bureau  is 
able  to  act  as  mediator  in  many  disputes  arising  be- 
tween the  foreign  importer  and  the  American  ex- 
porter. It  often  happens  that  disputes  of  this  kind 
lead  to  ill  feeling,  which  affects  not  only  the  par- 
ticular house  against  which  the  grievance  is  held, 
but  also  American  exporters  in  general.  Arbitra- 
tion disposes  of  the  dispute  without  necessarily  re- 
moving the  ill  feeling.    When  one  of  the  Bureau's 


182  Use  Your  Government 

representatives  abroad  discovers  dissatisfaction  he 
gets  the  facts  in  the  case  and  reports  to  the  Bureau 
in  Washington,  which  then  directs  the  District  or  Co- 
operative office  in  the  exporter's  district  to  take  up 
the  matter  personally  with  the  American  firm.  The 
Bureau  does  not  take  sides  in  such  cases,  but  has  at 
heart  only  the  best  interests  of  American  business. 
Its  representatives  assume  no  legal  responsibility  or 
attributes. 

Latm-American  Division  (see  also  Pan  Ameri- 
can Union,  page  186).  Because  of  the  unusual  in- 
terest shown  in  recent  years  in  the  markets  of  South 
America,  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies,  the 
Bureau  maintains  a  Latin-American  Division,  in 
which  is  concentrated  the  information  concerning 
such  markets.  This  Division,  in  addition  to  receiv- 
ing information  from  the  usual  sources,  subscribes 
to  many  Latin-American  newspapers,  magazines, 
and  official  journals.  It  answers  all  inquiries  from 
American  business  men  concerning  commercial  and 
industrial  conditions  in  the  Spanish-speaking  re- 
publics. 

A  Far-Eastern  Division,  similar  in  scope  to  the 
Latin- American  Division,  has  recently  been  organ- 
ized. 

Branch  Offices.  The  main  office  of  the  Bureau  is 
in  Washington,  but  it  has  District  Offices  in  New 
York,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco,  Seat- 
tle, Boston,  and  St.  Louis,  and  Cooperative  Offices 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    183 

in  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Los  Angeles,  Philadelphia, 
Chattanooga,  Portland  (Oregon),  and  Dayton, 
through  which  it  disseminates  trade  information  and 
keeps  in  touch  with  the  commercial  interests  of  the 
country. 

The  District  Offices  are  maintained  entirely  at  the 
Bureau's  expense,  but  the  Cooperative  Offices  are 
really  foreign  trade  departments  of  local  commer- 
cial organizations,  working  in  cooperation  with  the 
Bureau.  The  official  in  charge  of  such  offices  is  paid 
by  the  local  organization,  but  his  appointment  must 
be  approved  by  the  Bureau. 

These  branch  offices  were  established  to  expedite 
the  distribution  of  commercial  information,  to  as- 
certain the  needs  of  the  business  men  of  the  coun- 
try, and  to  establish  closer  cooperation  between  the 
Government  and  private  agencies  interested  in  the 
extension  of  foreign  trade. 

Each  office  has  on  file  confidential  information  re- 
garding ''Trade  Opportunities,"  lists  of  importers 
in  foreign  countries,  trade  directories,  etc. 

Each  District  Office  receives  specifications,  sam- 
ples, exhibits,  etc.,  for  a  limited  time  and  these  may 
be  inspected  by  interested  persons. 

Each  office,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  ar- 
ranges conferences  between  exporters  and  returned 
Consular  officers,  Special  Agents  and  Commercial 
Attaches  when  the  latter  visit  District  Offices  during 


184  Use  Your  Government 

leave  of  absence  in  this  country.  Foreign  buyers  are 
encouraged  to  make  their  headquarters  at  the  offices 
and  if  they  so  desire  are  introduced  to  American 
manufacturers. 

Each  office  makes  a  special  study  of  the  needs  of 
the  District  in  which  it  is  located  and  the  Bureau 
endeavors  to  equip  each  office  to  meet  the  demands 
peculiar  to  its  field. 

Each  office  keeps  on  file  all  publications  of  the 
Bureau,  as  well  as  publications  of  other  branches  of 
the  government  that  would  be  of  assistance  to 
American  exporters. 

All  questions  involving  the  rights  of  American 
citizens  in  foreign  countries  and  all  matters  involv- 
State  i^S  their  interests  abroad  are  under  the 

Depart-  jurisdiction  of  the  State  Department, 
ment.  ^q  whom  they  may  apply  for  advice  and 

assistance.  A  large  part  of  this  work  is  performed 
through  the  Consular  Service. 

Consular  The  duties  of  the  United  States  Con- 

Service,  suls  abroad  are  of  a  varied  nature  and 
may  be  described  as  follows : 

(1)  They  furnish  to  any  American  citizen  in- 
formation concerning  the  commercial  conditions 
throughout  the  country  in  which  they  are  stationed, 
especially  with  reference  to  their  own  particular  dis- 
trict. They  should  be  in  such  close  touch  with  the 
importers  of  that  country  that  they  are  able  not 
only  to  answer  inquiries  but  can  from  time  to  time 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  31  an    185 

report  on  matters  of  business  interest  to  the  United 
States. 

The  consuls  not  only  give  information  m  person 
to  the  business  man  but  they  answer  in  detail  any 
letter  that  may  be  addressed  to  them  concerning  the 
territory  to  which  they  have  been  sent.  They  are, 
therefore,  well  informed  concerning  every  angle  of 
business  as  well  as  other  subjects  which  might  in- 
terest  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 

(2)  They  report  regularly  concerning  trade  op- 
portunities. 

(3)  Many  of  the  Consuls  abroad  have  established 
in  their  offices  reading  rooms  containing  American 
commercial  papers  and  catalogues,  which  are  of  the 
greatest  interest  to  business  men.  In  cases  where 
this  may  be  of  special  importance  they  send  such 
catalogues  to  individuals. 

(4)  The  Consular  Service  is  charged  with  the 
duty  of  certifying  to  commercial  invoices  of  all 
goods  of  foreign  origin  destined  for  shipment  to 
this  country,  to  the  effect  that  the  prices  are  cur- 
rent as  given  by  the  invoice  in  the  market  in  ques- 
tion. 

(5)  Should  an  American  citizen  die  abroad,  leav- 
ing no  legal  representative  in  the  country  where  he 
dies,  the  Consul  looks  after  the  interests  of  Ameri- 
can heirs,  pays  the  debts  of  the  deceased  and  turns 
the  proceeds  to  the  American  heirs,  thus  acting  as  a 
quasi-administrator,  provided  the  authorities  of  the 


186  Use  Your  Government 

country  in  which  he  is  stationed  offer  no  objections. 

(6)  Consuls  also  maintain  registers  wherein 
American  citizens  resident  in  their  districts  are  re- 
corded after  the  question  has  been  favorably  passed 
on  by  the  State  Department. 

The  Pan  American  Union  is  an  international  or- 
ganization with  headquarters  in  Washington,  D.  C. 
Pan  I^s  purpose  is  to  promote  peace,  friend- 

American  ship,  good  understanding  and  the  con- 
Union,  sequent  closer  relation  socially  and  com- 
mercially among  the  21  republics  forming  the  Union. 
These  are  United  States,  Argentina,  Bolivia,  Brazil, 
Chile,  Colombia,  Costa  Rica,  Cuba,  Dominican  Re- 
public, Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Honduras,  Mex- 
ico, Nicaragua,  Panama,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Salvador, 
Uruguay  and  Venezuela.  It  is  controlled  by  a  gov- 
erning board,  with  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  as  ex-officio  the  presiding  officer,  and  the 
diplomatic  representatives  of  the  above  mentioned 
republics  of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Its  execu- 
tive officers,  who  are  elected  by  the  governing  board, 
are  a  Director  and  an  Assistant  Director,  who  are 
directly  responsible  to  this  board  for  the  active 
work  of  a  staff  of  editors,  statisticians,  trade  ex- 
perts, translators,  librarians,  compilers,  clerks  and 
assistants  employed  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  the 
organization. 

Expenses  of  maintenance  are  borne  by  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Union,  each  country  being  assessed  its 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    187 

quota  according  to  its  population,  the  United  States, 
therefore,  paying  the  largest  share.  The  work  of 
the  Union  may  be  described,  generally  speaking,  as 
follows : 

It  acts  as  a  general  bureau  of  information  for  all 
the  countries  of  the  Union,  its  average  mail  handled 
each  day,  including  letters,  pamphlets,  telegrams, 
packages,  etc.,  being  about  1,000  a  day. 

As  the  Union  by  no  means  exists  solely  for  the 
promotion  of  commerce  between  the  Republics,  the 
inquiries  encouraged  and  answered  concern  educa- 
tion, art  and  all  matters  of  general  interest. 

The  Union  maintains  a  special  service  for  manu- 
facturers, business  men  and  others  intending  a  visit 
to  South  America,  in  order  to  give  expert  advice  con- 
cerning rates  of  travel,  routes  and  conditions  of 
trade  in  the  various  South  American  countries. 

An  extensive  library  has  been  collected  to  assist 
in  supplying  the  desired  information.  This  library 
contains  over  40,000  volumes  on  American  subjects, 
over  1,500  maps  and  a  collection  of  over  20,000  pho- 
tographs, depicting  different  phases  of  activity  of 
the  people  in  Latin- America  and  the  United  States. 

In  the  reading  room  of  the  Pan  American  Build- 
ing are  to  be  found  the  daily  papers  of  the  larger 
cities  of  South  America  and  the  Island  Republics 
of  the  West  Indies  and  a  large  number  of  maga- 
zines in  Spanish,  Portuguese  and  French. 

The  information  collected  by  the  Union  is  distrib- 


188  Use  Your  Government 

uted  through  its  publications  and  through  its  service 
to  the  newspapers  and  periodicals  of  the  country- 
forming  the  Union. 

The  most  important  of  these  publications  may  be 
said  to  be  its  monthly  illustrated  magazine  known 
as  the  Bulletin  of  the  Pan  American  Union.  This 
publication  is  printed  in  four  different  language  edi- 
tions, i.  e.  English,  French,  Spanish  and  Portuguese. 
These  different  editions  are  not  merely  translations 
of  identical  contents,  but  each  edition  is  specially 
adapted  to  its  circulation.  Matters  that  have  no 
particular  value  in  Spanish-speaking  countries  or 
in  Brazil  may  be  of  great  interest  in  the  United 
States,  so  that  frequently  articles  are  written  for 
the  English  edition  which  are  not  given  in  the  Span- 
ish, Portuguese  or  French  editions.  Commercial 
usages,  simple  geographical  data,  etc.,  relating  to 
the  countries  of  South  America  are  matters  of  com- 
mon and  general  knowledge  in  those  countries,  but 
are  of  great  interest  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States.  On  the  other  hand,  new  inventions  that  have 
just  been  placed  on  the  market  of  the  United  States 
are  at  once  brought  to  the  attention  of  English- 
speaking  people  in  hundreds  of  publications  of  the 
United  States,  but  may  remain  unknown  in  Latin- 
American  countries  for  some  time.  The  Bulletin 
publishes  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  many 
such  important  inventions  in  its   Spanish,   Portu- 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    189 

gnese  and  French  editions  every  month,  omitting" 
such  material  from  its  English  edition. 

However,  there  are  many  articles  specially  pre- 
pared for  the  Pan  American  Union  by  experts  in 
their  respective  fields  which  are  of  interest  to  the 
people  of  all  the  countries,  and  these  are  published 
in  every  edition.  These  cover  a  wide  field,  and  con- 
cern the  latest  feature  of  trade  and  international 
commerce,  published  with  illustrations  secured  from 
original  sources,  descriptions  of  leading  cities,  ar- 
ticles dealing  with  archaeological  discoveries. 

Supplementing  the  work  of  the  magazine  are  va- 
rious other  publications.  Among  these  are  a  series 
of  illustrated  pamphlets  dealing  separately  with 
each  of  the  twenty  Latin-American  countries.  These 
pamphlets  give  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  the  coun- 
try and  explain  briefly  its  political  government  and 
educational  system ;  briefly  describe  the  climate,  agri- 
cultural and  mineral  resources,  the  transportation 
facilities,  chief  cities  and  ports  and  recent  progress 
in  general,  and  give  accurate  commercial  data  as  to 
the  imports  and  exports.  These  pamphlets  are  dis- 
tributed free  to  those  inquiring  for  them. 

Another  series  of  pamphlets  dealing  with  the  more 
technical  trade  matters  of  the  tariffs,  customs  laws, 
etc.,  of  each  of  the  countries,  and  are  specially  pre- 
pared for  exporters  and  others  interested  in  foreign 
trade.  These  tariffs  and  customs  laws  are  translated 
from  the  official  publications  of  the  respective  coun- 


190  Use  Your  Government 

tries  dealt  with  and  are,  therefore,  of  absolute  ac- 
curacy. 

Another  series  of  pamphlets  deals  with  special 
products  of  the  various  American  Republics,  such 
as  rubber,  coffee,  Paraguayan  tea,  tobacco,  cotton, 
etc. 

The  Pan  American  Union  regularly  provides 
''press  releases"  to  the  newspapers  of  the  United 
States  and  all  the  American  countries  concerning 
any  occurrence,  or  development  of  commercial, 
social  or  economic  importance  that  has  a  news  value 
not  strictly  political  in  character.  These  are  pre- 
pared for  publication  in  such  form  that  they  need 
not  be  rewritten.  They  are  mailed  in  the  English 
version  to  some  2,000  papers  in  the  United  States,  in 
Spanish  to  over  900  of  the  leading  papers  of  Spanish 
speaking  countries,  and  in  Portuguese  to  some  350 
papers  in  Brazil  and  Portugal,  while  the  French 
release  is  sent  to  a  more  limited  number  of  publica- 
tions in  Haiti  and  France.  The  releases  concern 
such  matters  as  the  exploitation  of  a  new  industry 
or  the  remarkable  growth  of  an  old  one :  the  recent 
great  development  of  the  cattle  industry  of  Brazil, 
the  tea  industry  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  the  cat- 
tle and  sheep  production  of  Uruguay,  the  nitrate 
situation  in  Chile,  and  hundreds  of  similar  subjects 
have  formed  the  topics  of  newspaper  releases. 

Official  reports  on  exports  and  imports  of  each 
of  the  countries  of  the  Union  are  compiled  by  the 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    191 

statistical  staff  from  original  sources  and  are  pub- 
lished annually.  Laws  governing  colonization,  min- 
ing, admission  of  foreigners  to  practise  various 
professions  in  the  several  countries,  and  those  in 
relation  to  patent  rights,  copyrights,  etc.,  are  also 
carefully  compiled  and  kept  for  reference  purposes. 

The  Pan  American  Union  cooperates  in  the  con- 
ducting of  all  kinds  of  conferences  relating  to  Pan 
American  commerce  and  finance  in  connection  there- 
with. It  may  be  mentioned  that  it  organizes,  pre- 
pares the  program,  preserves  the  records  and  exe- 
cutes the  resolutions  of  the  great  international  con- 
ferences of  the  American  Republics  held  at  varying 
intervals. 

The  Director-General  of  the  Union  and  various 
members  of  the  staff,  when  called  upon,  make  ad- 
dresses before  chambers  of  commerce,  business 
men's  organizations,  etc.,  on  subjects  dealing  with 
phases  of  Pan  American  relations  and  activities  to 
arouse  interest  among  the  people  of  the  United 
States  in  their  sister  republics. 
Tariff  The  United  States  Tariff  Commission 

Commis-  is  a  permanent  and  independent  com- 
sion.  mission    of    the    Federal    Government, 

created  by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  September 
the  8th,  1916. 

The  Commission  has  no  administrative,  legisla- 
tive or  judicial  power  or  duty.  It  is  an  investigating 
body,  and  exists  solely  for  the  gathering  of  informa- 


192  Use  Your  Government 

tion  and  suggesting  of  recommendations,  for  the  ben- 
efit of  and  at  the  request  of  either  the  public  or  Con- 
gress with  regard  to  all  questions  of  tariff.  Up  to 
the  present  it  has  been  almost  impossible  to  obtain 
complete  information  on  contested  questions  of  tar- 
iff, and  to  ascertain  what  were  the  unquestionable 
facts. 

The  law  provides  more  specifically  that  the  Com- 
mission is  to  investigate  and  report  on  the  admin- 
istrative and  physical  aspects  of  the  customs  laws, 
their  effects  on  the  industry  and  on  the  labor  con- 
ditions of  the  country,  the  relations  between  rates 
of  duty  on  raw  materials  and  those  on  finished  or 
partly  finished  products,  the  working  of  ad  valorem 
and  specific  duties,  the  arrangement  of  the  schedule 
and  classification  of  articles. 

The  Commission  further  has  authority  to  investi- 
gate and  to  make  reports  on  the  tariff  relations  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  foreign  countries,  on 
commercial  treaties  and  economic  alliances  and  sim- 
ilar subjects. 

It  has  already  begun  a  thorough  investigation  of 
the  reciprocity  treaties  and  the  commercial  policy 
of  the  United  States  and  the  European  countries. 
Still  more,  it  has  undertaken  to  inquire  indepen- 
dently what  are  the  plans  and  expectations  of  the 
various  countries  in  this  connection  in  regard  to  the 
future. 

The  Commission  has  already  begun  the  prepar- 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    193 

ation  of  a  catalogue  of  tariff  information,  which  will 
become  a  handy  source  of  reference  for  informa- 
tion on  the  several  phases  of  the  tariff  question.  It 
is  designed  to  have  on  hand  in  compact  and  simple 
form  all  available  data  on  the  growth,  development 
and  location  of  industries  affected  by  the  tariff,  on 
the  extent  of  domestic  production,  imports,  and  the 
conditions  of  competition  between  domestic  and  for- 
eign products. 

It  is  also  designed  to  bring  together  in  summary 
form  information  concerning  each  of  the  articles 
enumerated  in  the  tariff  laws.  The  catalogue  will 
further  contain  references  to  additional  sources  of 
information  received  by  the  Commission,  both  in 
print  and  as  documentary  material. 

The  codification  and  simplification  of  the  adminis- 
trative laws  relating  to  customs  will  also  be  worked 
out  by  the  Commission. 

The  Commission  is  required  to  transmit  to  Con- 
gress in  December  of  each  year  a  report  of  its  opera- 
tions during  the  preceding  year,  with  a  summary  of 
all  investigations  and  reports  made. 

The  Government  gives  to  the  first  inventor — 
through  the  Patent  Office — the  exclusive  right  of 
Patent  making  use  of  or  selling  his  invention 

Office.  for  seventeen  years  for  a  fee  of  thirty- 

five  dollars.  As  the  inventor  thus  has  a  monoply  of 
his  invention,  it  is  possible  for  him  to  interest  cap- 
italists to  invest  their  money  and  develop  the  in- 


194  Use  Your  Government 

vention  for  the  purpose  of  putting  it  on  the  market, 
without  the  risk  of  some  other  manufacturer  becom- 
ing his  rival,  after  he  has  demonstrated  its  popu- 
larity. 

The  development  of  the  art  of  invention  has  been 
extraordinary  since  the  patent  systems  of  the  world 
were  started. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  is  now  issu- 
ing about  forty  thousand  patents  each  year,  for 
which  about  one  thousand  employees  are  engaged. 

The  service  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards  indirectly 
or  directly  affects  every  individual  in  the  United 
Bureau  of  States.  Measurement  is  the  basis  of  all 
Standards,  land  survey,  including  the  location  of 
property;  measurement  is  the  basis  for  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  practically  all  commodities; 
measurement  underlies  alike  the  prescriptions  of  the 
physician,  the  formulas  of  the  chemist,  the  specifi- 
cations of  the  jobber,  the  plans  of  the  architect,  the 
contracts  of  the  builder,  and  the  statistics  of  the 
Government.  Transportation  rates  are  regulated 
by  the  weight  and  distance  of  shipments.  Likewise 
in  the  use  of  heat,  light,  and  electricity,  measure- 
ments form  the  basis  for  manufacture,  sale  and  use. 
These  are  a  few  of  the  many  examples  of  the  use  of 
measurements  in  regulating  human  activities. 

For  every  kind  of  measurement  there  are  measur- 
ing appliances  which  must  be  capable  of  measuring 
accurately  and  uniformly  throughout  the  country. 


Information  Given  to  the  Bitsiness  Man    195 

Each  kind  of  measurement,  therefore,  requires  ref- 
erence to  a  single  ultimate  standard  for  the  entire 
country.  These  are  maintained  at  the  Bureau  of 
Standards.  This  service  is  provided  by  Congress 
and  without  special  action  or  request  on  the  part  of 
the  general  public. 

The  design,  construction,  and  standardization  of 
the  great  variety  of  measuring  instruments  used  in 
a  thousand  industries  involve  technical  knowledge 
and  the  application  of  fundamental  scientific  theory. 
This  requires  the  Bureau  to  maintain  a  corps  of 
trained  scientists  experts  in  all  branches  of  physics, 
chemistry,  and  engineering. 

The  services  of  the  Bureau  are  available  to  man- 
ufacturers in  perfecting  their  methods  of  manu- 
facturing measuring  appliances,  to  the  inspectors 
of  weights  and  measures  for  standardizing  meth- 
ods for  testing  the  measuring  appliances  used  in 
trade,  and  to  the  general  public  in  furnishing  in- 
formation along  every  line  affecting  standards  or 
measuring  instruments. 

The  Bureau  also  confers  with  public  service  com- 
missions which  represent  the  people  in  regulating 
the  basis  of  standards  of  quality  for  such  public 
utilities  as  gas  and  electricity. 

Any  citizen  is  entitled  to  come  to  the  Bureau  for 
advice  within  the  Bureau 's  field.  If  the  Bureau  can 
refer  the  inquiry  to  a  more  direct  source  of  infor- 
mation, this  is  done.    But  thousands  of  letters  are 


196  Use  Your  Government 

written  annually  to  tlie  public  in  answer  to  technical 
questions  involved  in  ordinary  measurements. 

The  Bureau's  most  important  work,  however,  is 
in  laboratory  research  into  the  scientific  principles 
of  measurements.  Such  research  atfects  primarily 
the  designers  of  measuring  instruments  and  those 
experts  who  make  use  of  such  measuring  instru- 
ments in  the  factory,  the  laboratory,  or  in  the  mar- 
kets. 

The  Bureau  has  more  than  500  separate  publica- 
tions, containing  the  results  of  scientific  and  techni- 
cal researches,  and  also  a  number  of  popular  circu- 
lars which  set  forth  in  simple  language  some  of  the 
results  of  the  Bureau's  work.     (See  page  329.) 

The  work  of  the  Bureau,  broadly  speaking,  can 
be  divided  as  follows: 

(1)  It  furnishes  all  state  governments  with 
standardization  service  for  the  state  government 
standards  deposited  by  the  national  Government 
in  the  capitols  of  all  the  states. 

The  Bureau  furnishes  extra  advice  to  larger  muni- 
cipalities and  assists  in  installing  city  inspection 
service  for  trade  weights  and  measures.  Sealers 
often  visit  the  Bureau  to  study  at  first  hand  its 
methods  of  standardization.  The  Bureau  issued  in- 
structions for  the  guidance  of  sealers,  holds  con- 
ferences and  has  published  a  manual  which  will 
assist  sealers  to  become  expert  in  the  inspection  of 
trade  weights  and  measures.  | 


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Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    197 

By  means  of  the  above  two  methods  of  work  the 
Bureau  assists  in  the  control  of  the  accuracy  of 
yardsticks,  liquid  and  dry  capacity  measures, 
weights  and  balances  used  in  the  entire  retail  busi- 
ness of  the  country.  The  purpose  is  to  promote 
justice  in  daily  trade  through  systematic  inspection 
and  regulation. 

The  Bureau  compares  the  standards  by  which 
manufacturers  make  the  measuring  appliances  of 
daily  trade.  At  their  request  the  Bureau  also  as- 
sists in  the  matters  of  fixing  the  sizes  of  measuring 
appliances.  For  example,  the  recent  Standard  Bar- 
rel Act  put  the  problem  of  administration  up  to  the 
Bureau.  The  barrel  makers  appealed  to  the  Bureau 
for  assistance.  The  Bureau  worked  out  charts,  dia- 
grams and  formulas  and  sent  its  experts  to  the  bar- 
rel factories  to  assist  the  makers  in  determining 
accurately  the  size  of  their  product.  A  similar  ser- 
vice is  rendered  to  the  makers  of  weights  and  bal- 
ances and  large  scales.  Here  faulty  design  is 
pointed  out  and  the  Bureau  has  issued  specifications 
to  guide  the  manufacturers  in  improving  the  prod- 
uct. 

The  Bureau  tests  the  instruments  which  are  used 
in  scientific  laboratories  for  measurement.  Pre- 
cise measurement  underlies  all  scientific  research 
and  the  kinds  of  measurement  have  been  multiplied 
in  recent  years.  For  each  kind  of  measurement 
there  must  be  clearly  defined  units,  reliable  and 


198  Use  Your  Government 

durable  standards  and  accurate  and  convenient 
methods  of  measurement,  together  with  special  ap- 
paratus and  measuring  appliances  to  be  used  in  the 
actual  measuring. 

The  old  weights  and  measures,  length,  weight  and 
capacity  no  longer  serve  even  for  the  purpose  of 
daily  trade.  We  now  measure  area,  pressure,  den- 
sity, heat,  light,  electricity,  and  radioactivity. 

(2)  The  Bureau  studies  the  data  relating  to  the 
accurate  knowledge  which  forms  the  basis  of  every 
industrial  process.  The  purpose  is  to  give  investi- 
gators an  accurate  starting  point;  to  give  the  in- 
dustries the  means  by  which  they  can  secure  con- 
sistently uniform  and  high  quality  in  their  products, 
for  instance  in  the  quality  of  steel  rails,  of  rubber 
goods,  of  paper,  paints,  textiles,  and  materials  of 
every  sort. 

For  example,  the  elasticity  of  spring  steel  must 
be  accurately  known  if  the  watchmaker  is  to  make 
accurate  timepieces.  The  strength  of  steel  must 
be  known  accurately  if  bridges  and  skyscrapers  are 
to  be  safe,  or  if  tools  and  appliances  are  to  be 
rehable,  etc. 

(3)  The  Bureau  is  working  in  developing  stand- 
ards of  quality.  The  measure  of  quality  is  a  dis- 
tinctly modern  achievement.  The  aim  is  to  fix  or 
describe  in  measurable  terms  a  group  of  properties 
which  determine  the  qualities.  For  instance,  a  paper 
should  have  a  certain  thickness,  a  certain  color,  a 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    199 

certain  weight,  a  certain  strength  and  a  certain  re- 
sistance to  bursting  stress;  each  of  these  can  be 
measured  and  specified  in  a  contract  made  with  a 
paper  maker.  To  describe  every  kind  of  material 
for  all  its  varied  uses  would  involve,  say,  more 
than  a  hundred  thousand  separate  items  for  the 
national  Government  alone. 

To  give  a  practical  instance  of  the  Bureau's  work: 
the  Bureau  secured  the  cooperation  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  makers  and  users  of  Portland  cement  and 
the  technical  experts  on  cement.  By  means  of  con- 
ferences, laboratory  and  field  experiments,  stand- 
ards of  quality  of  Portland  cement  were  agreed 
upon  for  the  Government  and  for  engineers.  The 
standards  were  published  by  authority  of  the  Presi- 
dent, and  the  standard  has  now  become  the  basis  of 
buying  and  testing  this  important  material.  A  sim- 
ilar illustration  may  be  cited,  namely,  the  establish- 
ment of  standards  for  electric  plants. 

This  work,  by  setting  an  attainable  standard,  in- 
sures high  utility  in  the  products  of  industry,  fur- 
nishes- a  basis  for  fair  dealing  which  avoids  disputes 
and  settles  differences  and  encourages  truthful  ad- 
vertising. 

Furthermore,  quality  standards  are  a  direct 
means  of  avoiding  waste  in  science  and  industry. 
For  example,  a  factor  of  safety  of  200  per  cent,  or 
300  per  cent,  has  to  be  allowed  in  structural  engi- 
neering in  designing  and  constructing  bridges  and 


200  Use  Your  Government 

buildings.  The  reason  for  this  waste  of  material  ; 
is  the  lack  of  standard  data  as  to  the  exact  strength 
of  the  columns.  If  a  column  is  crushed  in  a  testing 
machine  it  is  no  longer  fit  for  use.  If,  however,  the 
strength  of  the  column  could  be  assured  in  advance 
by  a  standard  composition  for  the  steel,  a  standard 
heat  treatment  and  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  effect 
of  the  shape  of  the  column  upon  its  strength,  it 
would  be  possible  to  save  a  large  percentage  of  the 
material  which  must  be  allowed  as  a  factor  of  safety. 
Likewise,  if  a  cutting  tool,  such  as  a  drill,  is  made 
of  a  steel  whose  strength  and  hardness  are  of  a 
standard  magnitude  (conformed  to  a  standard 
quality)  the  performance  in  actual  service  could 
be  predicted.  If  the  standards  of  quality  in  the  out- 
put are  assured  in  the  mill,  by  a  scientifically 
planned  process,  and  a  measured  control  of  each 
step,  it  would  scarcely  be  necessary  to  test  the  out- 
put. Such  mill  control,  or  standards  of  process,  are 
not  yet  scientifically  planned  or  in  operation,  so  that 
some  testing  is  essential.  The  Bureau  of  Standards 
has  developed  a  magnetic  test  by  which  the  hardness 
of  the  drill  can  be  determined  without  damage  to  the 
drill.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  machin- 
ing expensive  appliances,  where  the  breaking  of  a 
drill  may  ruin  a  piece.  The  establishment  of  stand- 
ards of  quality,  and  the  technical  provision  for  en- 
suring them  in  mill  practise,  will  eventually  mean 
a  saving  of  enormous  losses  in  a  thousand  lines  of 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    201 

industry,  and  ensure  efficiency  in  all  the  operations 
which  depend  upon  the  quality  of  such  products. 

(4)  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards  of 
performance  is  similar  to  the  work  on  standards  of 
quality.  Quality  applies  to  material,  performance 
to  a  machine.  In  modern  practise  technical  experts 
begin  to  realize  that  performance  can  be  accurately 
measured.  The  mileage  of  a  tire  is  a  measure  of  tire 
service.  The  mileage  of  gasoline  is  a  measure  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  motor  and  gear  of  an  automo- 
bile. Sometimes  performance  can  be  simply  speci- 
fied, as  in  the  case  of  a  tuning-fork.  In  other  cases, 
it  may  involve  thousands  of  measurements  to  fully 
describe  the  speed,  uniformity,  output,  economy, 
durability  and  the  other  factors  which  working  to- 
gether define  the  net  efficiency  of  an  appliance.  The 
use  of  standards  of  performance  will  make  exact 
knowledge  the  basis  of  the  buyer's  choice,  it  wiU 
stimulate  and  measure  mechanical  progress,  and 
place  every  purchase  upon  a  clear  understanding  be- 
tween the  maker,  seller,  buyer  and  user  as  to  what 
can  be  expected  of  a  given  machine  or  appliance. 

(5)  Standards  of  practise  represent  another 
very  important  phase  of  the  Bureau's  work,  and 
is  similar  to  the  standards  of  performance  and  qual- 
ity. Two  publications  have  been  issued  in  connec- 
tion herewith  and  the  cooperation  of  many  national 
organizations  was  secured  in  developing  these,  en- 
titled   ''standards     for     Electric     Service"     and 


202  Use  Your  Government 

''Standards  for  Gas  Service."  In  each  case  there 
is  set  forth  an  impersonal  standard  to  ensure  effect- 
ive design  and  installation,  promote  safety  and  con- 
venience, and  to  secure  a  uniform  practise  as  fully 
as  possible.  The  extension  of  this  work  is  to  in- 
clude interurban  trolley  service  and  telephone  ser- 
vice, which  will  mark  an  important  step  forward  in 
the  promotion  of  the  public  interest. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  (see 
page  24)  is  of  great  interest  to  large  manufactur- 
Bureau  of  ^^S  firms,  agricultural  implement  con- 
Crop  cerns  and  hardware  companies  who  nei- 
Estimates.     ^jjgp  ^^y  j^qj.  g^ii  farm  products.     The 

knowledge  given  them  by  an  estimate  of  crop  pros- 
pects enables  them  to  distribute  their  wares  eco- 
nomically, sending  much  to  sections  where  crops  are 
good  and  farmers  will  have  money  with  which  to  buy 
and  less-  to  sections  where  the  crops  are  short  and 
farmers  will  have  less  to  spend. 

The  railroads  of  the  country  which  move  the 
crops  from  the  farms  to  the  markets  must  know  in 
advance  the  probable  size  of  the  crop,  in  order  to 
provide  a  sufficient  number  of  cars  to  handle  it 
effectively  and  without  delay.  Cases  are  not  infre- 
quent when  the  prices  of  grain  at  railroad  stations 
are  reduced  or  there  is  absolutely  no  sale  for  the 
grain  because  cars  are  not  available  for  shipping. 

Prompt  and  reliable  information  regarding  crop 
prospects  is  also  important  and  valuable  in  the  con- 


Information  Given  to  the  BuMness  Man    203 

duct  of  commercial,  industrial,  and  transportation 
enterprises.  The  earlier  the  information  regarding 
the  probable  production  of  the  great  agricultural 
commodities  can  be  published  the  more  safely  and 
economically  can  the  business  of  the  country  be  man- 
aged from  year  to  year. 

Retail  dealers  in  all  lines  of  goods,  whether  in  the 
city  or  in  the  country,  order  from  wholesale  mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  the  goods  they  expect  to 
sell  many  weeks  or  months  before  the  actual  pur- 
chase and  shipment.  It  is  therefore  important  that 
they  have  the  earliest  possible  information  with  re- 
gard to  crop  prospects  and  the  probable  purchas- 
ing powers  of  the  farmer. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  is  also  largely  used  by 
those  who  deal  directly  in  the  products  of  agricul- 
ture, such  as  millers,  speculators,  etc.  Large  finan- 
cial institutions,  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  offi- 
cials, etc.,  also  make  use  of  the  reports  to  a  large 
extent. 

Weather  The  reports  of  the  Weather  Bureau 

Bureau.  (see  page  15)   are  used  as  follows  by 

the  business  man,  states  the  Bureau's  pamphlet  on 
this  subject: 

The  daily  maps  and  bulletins  and  the  general  bul- 
letin and  reports  containing  statistical  data  are  used 
by  the  grain  and  cotton  brokers,  who  are  guided 
largely  by  the  forecasts  in  their  operations. 

The  data  regarding  rainfall  and  snowfall  are  ex- 


204  Use  Your  Government 

tremely  useful  in  planning  irrigation  enterprises 
and  selecting  reservoir  sites  and  are  studied  in  con- 
nection with  the  construction  of  water  works, 
bridges  and  sewers.  They  are  also  necessary  in 
dredging  operations,  the  location  of  walls,  construc- 
tion of  dams  and  in  practically  every  phase  of 
bridge  building  and  general  improvement. 

They  are  also  used  by  bond  and  investment  com- 
panies in  determining  the  loan  values  of  farm  lands 
in  newly  opened  countries. 

The  railway  and  transportation  companies  make 
continued  use  of  the  forecasts  in  all  their  ship- 
ments. Perishable  products  are  protected  against 
temperature  extremes  by  icing  or  heating,  as  con- 
ditions may  require.  Oftentimes  shipments  of  per- 
ishable goods  are  accelerated  when  it  is  found  pos- 
sible to  carry  them  to  their  destination  in  advance 
of  the  expected  unfavorable  temperature  conditions. 
When  this  cannot  be  accomplished,  goods  en  route 
are  run  into  roundhouses  for  protection.  An  ad- 
vance notice  of  a  cold  wave  will  also  often  hold  up 
a  contemplated  shipment  until  after  the  freeze  has 
passed,  and  if  the  cold  is  protracted  the  companies 
will  refuse  to  receive  consignments  of  goods  likely 
to  be  injured  by  low  temperatures.  These  precau- 
tions apply  in  some  instances  to  prospective  temper- 
ature changes  within  comparatively  narrow  limits. 

The  daily  forecast  and  report  of  general  weather 
conditions  likewise  assist  in  determining  the  points 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    205 

to  which  many  shipments  of  perishable  articles  are 
directed,  in  order  to  meet  the  irregular  demands 
that  are  frequently  dependent  upon  the  kinds  of 
weather  that  prevails  in  a  given  section.  The  move- 
ment of  eggs  kept  in  storage,  for  instance,  is  largely 
regulated  by  temperature  changes,  the  announce- 
ment of  a  cold  wave  being  usually  fallowed  by 
brisker  shipments  from  Western  supply  districts  to 
the  Eastern  markets  in  anticipation  of  a  rise  in 
prices. 

The  uses  made  of  temperature  forecasts  in  the 
cities  are  of  a  very  varied  character  and  concern 
every  phase  of  city  life  from  the  merchants'  point  of 
view — from  the  coal  dealer  to  the  ice  man. 

The  river  and  flood  service  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
is  organized  with  its  principal  headquarters  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  subsidiary  district  centers 
at  advantageous  points  on  the  respective  rivers 
along  which  a  service  is  maintained. 

About  60  district  centers  are  maintained  outside 
of  Washington,  D.  C. 

Measurements  of  precipitation  on  the  headwaters 
of  the  streams  and  observations  of  the  height  of 
water  on  the  gauge  at  upstream  points  are  collected 
by  telegraph  or  telephone  from  about  540  substa- 
tions and  serve  as  the  basis  for  warnings  of  floods 
in  the  lower  reaches  of  the  streams.  A  second  use- 
ful purpose  is  served  on  navigable  streams,  viz.,  that 
of  giving  notice  of  boating  stages  during  the  low- 


206  Use  Your  Government 

water  season.  These  flood  warnings  are  indispens- 
able to  all  river  industries,  as  well  as  to  the  opera- 
tions carried  on  in  the  lowlands  subject  to  inunda- 
tion. The  issue  of  the  flood  warnings  is  followed 
by  the  removal  of  cattle  from  bottom  lands  and  by 
the  saving  of  such  crops  as  can  be  cut  before  the 
high  water  reaches  the  threatened  district.  Fore- 
knowledge of  the  expected  river  stages  is  also  of 
great  advantage  in  determining  whether  or  not  it 
will  be  advisable  to  undertake  farming  operations  in 
the  regions  subject  to  overflow.  In  the  cities  the 
flood  service  often  enables  the  merchant  to  save 
goods  kept  in  the  basement  or  streets  likely  to  be- 
come flooded.  The  service  is  also  of  great  assistance 
to  the  lumberman  with  regard  to  the  cutting  of  his 
timber  in  the  swamps,  etc. 

The  fishing  industry  is  greatly  benefited  by  this 
service,  as  the  rise  and  fall  of  rivers  in  many  cases 
determines  the  haul  of  the  fish. 

Census  of  Population.  In  the  tenth  year  of  each 
decade  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  makes  an  enumer- 
Bureau  ation  of  the  population  of  the  United 

of  the  States,  and  of  each  state,  municipality. 

Census.  county  and  township,  or  similar  county 

subdivision.  This  enumeration  covers  not  merely 
the  actual  numbers  of  persons  living  in  these  various 
geographical  units,  but  also  their  "composition  and 
characteristics"  as  to  sex,  age,  color  or  race,  birth- 
place, birthplace  of  parents,  native  languages,  con- 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    207 

jugal  condition,  school  attendance,  literacy,  ability 
to  speak  English,  ownership  of  homes,  and  occu- 
pations, and,  in  addition  for  the  foreign  born,  length 
of  time  in  the  United  States  and  status  as  to  citizen- 
ship. 

The  figures  as  to  the  total  populations  of  the 
various  municipahties,  etc.,  are  obviously  of  im- 
mense value  to  all  large  manufacturers  and  dealers ; 
and  while  some  of  the  detailed  statistics  are  useful 
chiefly  to  educators,  students,  economists,  sociolo- 
gists, etc.,  nevertheless  many  of  them  are  helpful 
to  the  business  man  as  well.  For  example,  a  manu- 
facturer seeking  a  suitable  location  for  a  new  plant 
will  want  to  know  not  merely  the  total  populations 
of  the  places  he  has  under  consideration,  but  also 
the  numbers  of  natives  and  numbers  of  foreigners, 
the  numbers  of  young  and  middle-aged  persons,  and 
the  principal  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  All 
these  data  he  can  easily  obtain  from  the  census  re- 
ports, which  are  published  not  only  in  large  bound 
volumes  that  may  be  consulted  at  leading  libraries 
throughout  the  country,  but  also  in  paper-bound  bul- 
letins that  may  be  obtained  without  charge  from  the 
Census  Bureau  upon  request. 

Census  of  Manufacturers.  Every  five  years  the 
Census  Bureau  collects  statistics  of  manufacturers, 
covering  such  matters  as  number  of  establishments ; 
proprietors,  officials  and  employees;  character  of 
ownership  (corporate,  firm,  individual,  or  other) ; 


208  Use  Your  Government 

capital  invested;  salaries  and  wages  paid;  cost  of 
materials  and  fuel;  kind  and  amount  of  power; 
kinds  and  values  of  products  and  quantities  of  prin- 
cipal products;  hours  of  labor;  etc. 

These  statistics,  like  those  relating  to  population, 
are  published  in  large  bound  volumes,  and  also  in 
the  form  of  paper-bound  bulletins.  The  latter, 
which  are  distributed  free  upon  request,  relate  to 
individual  states  and  to  individual  industries;  and 
the  state  bulletins  contain  separate  figures  for  cities 
having  10,000  or  more  inhabitants.  The  last  census 
of  manufacturers  related  to  the  industrial  operations 
of  the  complete  calendar  year  1914;  and  the  next, 
which  will  form  a  part  of  the  coming  decennial  cen- 
sus, to  be  taken  in  1920,  will  cover  the  manufactur- 
ing operations  of  the  year  1919. 

The  great  value  of  these  statistics  to  manufactur- 
ers, dealers  and  business  men  generally,  especially 
when  considered  in  connection  with  the  annual  sta- 
tistics of  imports  and  exports  published  by  the  Bu- 
reau of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  of  the 
Department  of  Commerce,  is  so  obvious  as  to  need 
no  comment. 

Census  of  Electric  Light  and  Power  Stations  and 
Electric  Railways.  Every  five  years  the  Census  Bu- 
reau publishes  statistics  relating  to  central  electric 
light  and  power  stations  and  electric  railways  (in- 
cluding all  street  railways,  whether  electrically 
operated  or  not).    These  statistics  show,  for  electric 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    209 

light  and  power  stations,  such  items  of  information 
as  the  following:  numbers  of  commercial  and  mu- 
nicipal stations;  character  of  ownership  of  com- 
mercial stations  (whether  corporate,  firm,  indi- 
vidual, or  other) ;  data  as  to  stations  operated  in 
connection  with  railways;  equipment;  output  (in 
kilowatt  hours) ;  capitalization;  cost  of  construction 
and  equipment;  income  and  expenses;  employees; 
salaries  and  wages;  number  of  customers;  and  a 
comparison  of  central  electric  stations  and  gas 
plants. 

The  report  presenting  these  statistics  also  con- 
tains a  section  entitled  ''Technical  Aspects  of  the 
Period,"  which  consists  of  a  technical  discussion, 
with  illustrations,  of  the  advances  made  and  the  im- 
provements that  have  come  into  use  during  the  pre- 
ceding five  years. 

The  report  relating  to  street  and  electric  rail- 
ways presents  statistics  as  to  trackage,  motive 
power,  and  rolling  stock;  traffic;  electrically  oper- 
ated divisions  of  steam  roads;  municipal  railways; 
elevated  and  subway  railways;  urban  and  inter- 
urban  railways;  equipment;  output  of  power  sta- 
tions (in  kilowatt  hours) ;  capitalization  and  cost  of 
construction ;  income  and  expenses ;  employees ;  sal- 
aries and  wages ;  sale  of  current  by  electric  railway 
companies ;  etc.  This  report  also  contains  a  section 
devoted  to  the  technical  advances  made  in  the  in- 
dustry during  the  preceding  five-year  period. 


210  Use  Your  Government 

The  next  report  on  these  industries  will  cover  the 
industrial  operations  of  the  calendar  year  1917. 

Statistics  of  Telephones  and  Telegraphs.  In  con- 
nection with  the  census  of  electric  light  and  power 
plants  and  electric  railways,  data  are  gathered  in 
regard  to  telephone  and  telegraph  companies  (in- 
cluding cable  and  wireless)  and  municipal  electric 
fire-alarm  and  police-patrol  signaling  systems.  The 
report  on  these  subjects  covers  finances,  amount  of 
business  done,  equipment,  employees,  salaries  and 
wages,  etc.,  for  the  Bell,  independent  and  govern- 
mental telephone  systems  and  for  commercial  and 
governmental  land,  ocean-cable,  and  wireless  tele- 
graph companies ;  and  shows  the  number  of  systems, 
mileage  of  overhead  and  underground  wire,  amount 
of  other  equipment,  number  of  signals  or  alarms, 
etc.,  for  municipal  electric  fire-alarm  and  police- 
patrol  signaling  systems. 

Statistics  of  Water  Transportation.  Every  ten 
years  there  is  published  a  report  relating  to  water 
transportation.  This  report  presents,  for  the  va- 
rious classes  of  American-owned  craft  of  five  gross 
tons  or  more,  engaged  in  coastwise  or  foreign  trade, 
statistics  as  to  ownership  (corporate,  firm,  indi- 
vidual, or  other),  construction,  number  and  tonnage, 
valuation,  power,  income,  employees,  wages,  freight 
and  passengers,  Congressional  appropriations  for 
development  of  inland  waterways,  etc.  In  addition, 
similar  information,  so  far  as  practicable,  will  be 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    211 

given  in  the  forthcoming  report,  which  will  cover 
the  calendar  year  1916,  for  American  fishing  craft. 

The  report  for  1916  will  also  present  statistics 
for  the  shipbuilding  industry,  covering  the  construc- 
tion and  repair  of  vessels  of  all  classes,  whether  for 
operation  on  the  waters  of  the  United  States  or  in 
foreign  trade. 

Statistics  of  Fisheries.  Another  investigation 
made  at  ten-year  intervals  by  the  Census  Bureau  is 
that  relating  to  fisheries.  This  is  conducted  in  co- 
operation with  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries.  The  report 
gives  detailed  statistical  information  as  to  capital 
and  equipment;  number  and  occupational  status  of 
persons  engaged ;  salaries  and  wages ;  species,  quan- 
titles,  and  values  of  products;  exports  and  imports; 
etc.  The  next  report  relating  to  the  fishing  industry 
will  cover  the  calendar  year  1918. 

Statistics  of  Mines  and  Quarries.  As  a  part  of 
each  decennial  census — that  is,  each  census  of  pop- 
ulation, manufactures,  etc.,  taken  in  a  year  divis- 
ible by  ten — there  is  made  an  inquiry  relating  to 
mines,  quarries,  and  oil  and  gas  wells.  The  last 
report  on  this  subject,  which  covered  the  industrial 
operations  of  the  complete  calendar  year  1909,  pre- 
sented statistics  showing  the  geographical  distri- 
bution and  number  of  mines,  quarries,  and  wells; 
capital;  character  of  organization  (corporate,  firm, 
individual,  or  other) ;  number  of  operators,  pro- 
prietors,   officers,    and    employees;    salaries    and 


212  Use  Your  Government  | 

wages ;  hours  of  labor ;  kinds,  quantities,  and  values 
of  products;  cost  of  supplies  and  materials;  ex- 
penses; power;  etc. 

Statistics  of  Municipal  Finance.  The  Bureau  of 
the  Census  makes  annual  collections  and  publica- 
tions of  financial  statistics  for  cities  having  30,000 
or  more  inhabitants.  These  statistics  give  a  com- 
plete presentation  of  the  financial  transactions  of 
all  cities  of  the  size  specified,  showing  assessed  valu- 
ation of  taxed  property,  taxes  levied,  amounts  de- 
rived from  other  forms  of  revenue,  expenditures  for 
current  purposes,  outlays  for  permanent  improve- 
ments, indebtedness,  assets,  etc.  These  statistics, 
while  primarily  of  value  to  city  oflQcials  and  others 
especially  interested  in  municipal  finance,  are  of 
considerable  value  also  to  the  business  man,  since 
by  consulting  them  he  can  ascertain  whether  a  given 
city  is  conducting  its  fiscal  affairs  in  a  businesslike 
and  economical  manner. 

Statistics  of  State  Finance.  The  Census  Bu- 
reau also  publishes  annually  a  report  presenting, 
for  the  several  states  of  the  Union,  statistics  simi- 
lar in  scope  to  those  given  in  the  reports  on  munici- 
pal finance,  just  described. 

Periodical  Cotton  and  Cotton  Seed  Statistics. 
At  slightly  varying  intervals,  averaging  about  two 
weeks  in  length,  the  Census  Bureau  collects  and 
publishes  figures  showing  the  amounts  of  cotton 
ginned  to  specified  dates,  a  total  of  ten  such  reports 


Information  Given  to  the  Business  Man    213 

being  issued  during  each  ginning  season  in  the  form 
of  post  cards,  which  are  mailed  to  large  numbers  of 
growers,  dealers,  and  others  interested  in  the  cotton 
industry.  At  monthly  intei-vals  the  Bureau  collects 
and  publishes  in  post-card  form  statistics  relating 
to  cotton  consumed,  exported,  imported,  and  on 
hand  and  active  cotton  spindles;  and  statistics  per- 
taining to  cotton  seed  and  its  products.  It  also  pub- 
lishes quarterly  statistics  relating  to  the  consump- 
tion of  cotton,  cotton  fiber  in  the  manufacture  of 
explosives  and  of  raw  cotton  in  the  manufacture  of 
absorbent  and  medicated  cotton.  An  annual  bulletin 
is  issued,  in  which  are  presented,  in  amplified  form 
with  text  discussions,  the  various  statistics  published 
at  intervals  during  the  preceding  year,  together 
with  other  information  not  given  in  the  periodical 
reports.  This  bulletin  shows  cotton  and  linter  pro- 
duction; number  and  average  output  of  ginneries; 
weight  and  estimated  value  of  upland  and  sea-island 
cotton  and  seed;  acreage  and  production  of  each 
cotton  state;  average  grades  and  prices;  consump- 
tion of  cotton  and  linters  in  manufacturing  indus- 
tries; number  of  active  spindles;  exports  and  im- 
ports of  cotton  and  its  manufactures;  number  of 
establishments  crushing  cotton  seed;  quantities  of 
seed  produced  and  crushed  and  of  linters  obtained ; 
and  kinds,  quantities,  and  values  of  cotton-seed 
products. 

Statistics  of  Tobacco  Stocks.     At  quarterly  in- 


214  Use  Your  Government 

tervals  during  the  year  the  Bureau  collects  statis- 
tics concerning  the  quantities  of  leaf  tobacco  of  all 
forms  held  by  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  the 
United  States.  The  reports,  which  are  issued  in 
post-card  form,  show  the  number  of  pounds  of  leaf 
tobacco  on  hand,  classified  according  to  principal 
chewing,  smoking,  snuff  and  export  types,  principal 
«igar  and  import  types. 


CHAPTER  II.— SPECIAL  WORK  DONE  FOR 
VARIOUS  INDUSTRIES 

(a)      The  Mining  Industry 

The  mining  industry  is  second  only  to  agriculture, 
with  an  annual  mineral  production  now  ranging  be- 
tween $2,000,000,000  and  $3,000,000,000,  and  includ- 
ing over  100  minerals  and  with  about  90,000  produc- 
ing firms  employing  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
miners. 

The  Government  early  recognized  the  need  of 
obtaining  accurate  information  concerning  the  nat- 
Geological  ural  resources  of  the  country.  Many 
Survey.  of  the  first  investigations  were  made 
by  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  Army  or  Navy, 
but  civilian  scientists  were  afterwards  attached  to 
these  expeditions.  After  the  Civil  "War  and  the 
opening  of  the  great  unknown  Western  territory, 
expeditions  that  were  primarily  scientific  were  sent 
out.  In  1879,  acting  on  the  advice  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  impressed  with  the  need 
of  a  permanent  Bureau  for  the  collecting  and  dis- 
seminating information  on  the  nature  and  resources 
of  the  country,   Congress   created   the   Geological 

215 


216  Use  Your  Government 

Survey.  This  organization  was  planned  to  have 
charge  of  the  classification  of  the  public  lands  and 
the  examination  of  the  geological  structure,  mineral 
resources  and  products  of  the  national  domain. 

The  law  by  which  the  Geological  Survey  was 
organized  provides  broadly  for  the  classification  of 
the  public  domain,  in  connection  with  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  public  land  laws  which  depend  on  the 
character  of  the  land.    (See  page  153.) 

The  land  is  classed  according  to  the  various  laws, 
as  '' Homestead  Land,"  '* Mineral  Land,"  '' Desert 
Land,"  ''Dry  Land,"  etc. 

Whether  the  settler  gets  his  land  from  the  Gov- 
ernment or  buys  it  from  other  holders,  the  infor- 
mation obtained  regarding  the  geological  structure, 
mineral  resources,  etc.,  is  at  his  disposal  to  assist 
him  in  the  purchase  and  development  of  his  land. 

One  of  the  chief  methods  of  making  available  to 
the  general  public  the  result  of  the  work  of  the 
Geological  Survey  is  by  means  of  maps.  For  the 
making  of  these  it  employs  more  than  150  topo- 
graphic engineers  and  many  more  temporary  field 
assistants  who  are  engaged  in  making  topographic 
base  maps  of  the  United  States,  a  work  in  which 
many  of  the  individual  states  cooperate  with  the 
Survey.  Over  2,500  of  these  maps,  representing 
about  40  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  United  States, 
have  been  published  and  the  map  work  is  progress- 
ing at  the  rate  of  20,000  square  miles  a  year. 


Work  Done  for  Mining  Industry       217 

These  topographic  maps  are  printed  in  three  col- 
ors so  as  to  distinguish  clearly  the  three  kinds  of 
features  shown.  Black  is  used  to  indicate  roads, 
houses  and  names — the  human  features  of  the  map 
— and  blue  is  used  to  indicate  the  streams  and  lakes 
and  other  water  features,  and  brown  is  used  to  in- 
dicate the  hills  and  valleys,  whose  elevations  are 
shown  by  means  of  contour  lines. 

The  topographic  map  is  an  accurate  relief  model 
of  the  area  map,  there  being  no  part  of  the  area 
shown  on  the  map  whose  altitude  above  sea  level 
is  not  indicated.  It  is  a  complete  dictionary  of  alti- 
tudes for  the  entire  area  of  the  country.  The  Sur- 
vey's topographic  map  taken  as  a  whole  forms  an 
atlas  composed  of  thousands  of  sheets  and  is  the  de- 
tailed base  map  of  the  country. 

The  surveys  for  each  of  these  maps  are  made 
at  a  cost  of  $3,000  to  $5,000  and  they  show  every 
physical  feature  of  the  area  it  covers,  every  stream- 
let and  hill,  every  crossroad  and  farmhouse,  in  its 
exact  relative  position  to  all  the  other  objects  in  the 
area.  These  maps  can  be  bought  at  the  nominal 
price  of  ten  cents  and  the  Survey  sells  more  than 
half  a  million  maps  a  year. 

This  serves  as  a  base  on  which  can  be  repre- 
sented the  features  relating  to  many  of  the  subjects 
that  have  been  investigated,  as,  for  instance,  the  kind 
and  distribution  of  the  rocks,  the  economic  re- 
sources, and  facts  of  geographic  significance. 


218  Use  Your  Government 

The  method  of  making  the  maps  is  as  follows : 

The  area  to  be  mapped  must  first  be  located  on 
the  earth's  surface  geographically.  This  involves 
the  determination  of  the  exact  position  in  latitude 
and  longitude  by  astronomic  measures  of  a  point 
on  or  near  the  area  to  be  mapped,  from  which  the 
location  of  all  the  other  points  are  determined.  In 
addition  the  exact  elevation  above  the  sea  of  certain 
selected  points  must  be  ascertained.  These  lines 
ramify  throughout  the  United  States  and  range  in 
elevation  from  the  lowest  point  in  Death  Valley, 
which  is  276  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  to  the 
summit  of  Mt.  Whitney,  14,501  feet  above  sea  level, 
the  highest  point  in  the  United  States  south  of 
Alaska. 

The  permanent  records  of  work  of  this  kind  are 
left  in  the  country  mapped  in  the  form  of  bench 
marks — plates  giving  the  elevation  of  the  particular 
spots  marked  to  the  nearest  foot.  The  Survey  has 
set  30,000  of  these  bench  marks  which  are  used  as 
starting  points  for  the  various  engineering  works — 
by  ranches  in  planting  the  irrigation  system,  by  the 
engineer  in  locating  a  petroleum  pipe-line  route,  by 
the  sanitary  engineer  in  building  a  city  sewer  and  by 
the  mining  operator  in  figuring  the  tonnage  of  ore  or 
fuel  yet  in  the  ground. 

Following  the  work  of  the  topographer  comes  the 
work  of  the  geologist,  who  observes  and  locates 
on  the  topographer's  map  the  distribution  of  the 


Work  Done  for  Mining  Industry       219 

various  kinds  of  rocks.  The  work  of  the  geologist 
is  widespread  and  extends  into  every  state  in  the 
Union  and  into  Alaska  and  Hawaii.  As  a  result  of 
these  geologic  explorations  and  investigations  made 
by  the  Survey,  maps  representing  thousands  of 
square  miles  are  published  each  year.  They  are 
applied  to  many  uses.  Maps  of  areas  that  include 
pools  of  oil  and  gas  show  the  lay  of  the  rocks  deep 
below  the  surface  and  the  places  at  which  further 
drilling  is  most  likely  to  result  in  producing  wells. 
Maps  of  coal  lands  show  what  areas  are  underlain 
by  coal,  and  many  of  them  indicate  the  depth  of  the 
coal  below  the  surface.  Such  a  map  is  accompanied 
by  a  report  which,  if  it  covers  a  coal  field,  gives  the 
data  for  determining  the  tonnage  of  coal  within  any 
part  of  the  area  covered.  Some  of  these  maps  show 
not  only  where  water-bearing  formations  outcrop, 
but  how  deep  they  lie  below  the  surface  and  how  far 
a  man  must  drill  to  get  water.  Maps  of  many  min- 
ing districts  show  the  locahties  most  favorable  for 
prospecting  for  ore  deposits. 

Where  the  geologist  leaves  off,  the  mining  engi- 
neer takes  hold,  and  in  examining  and  appraising 
a  mineral  property  the  mining  engineer  uses  the 
map  and  report  of  the  geologist.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  constructing  engineer,  who  uses  the  map 
showing  the  rock  structure  or  the  character  of  the 
foundation  upon  which  he  must  build. 

The  Geological  Survey  has  thus  mapped  and  re- 


220  Use  Your  Government 

ported  on  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles  of 

the  United  States,  showing  the  location  of  coal  beds, 
phosphate  beds,  iron  ores,  gold-bearing  rocks  and 
placers,  silver,  copper,  lead  and  zinc-bearing  rock, 
limestone,  marble,  granite,  slate,  in  fact  every  kind 
of  precious  and  useful  mineral  from  rare  minerals, 
such  as  radium  ores  and  gem-bearing  formations,  to 
common  brick-clay  deposits.  It  has  been  possible  to 
estimate  the  reserve  supply  of  some  of  the  minerals 
in  the  ground,  both  that  of  local  deposits  and  the 
total  for  the  country  as  a  whole. 

Investigations  of  mines  by  geologists  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  ore  available  and  its  geological  oc- 
currence are  of  great  importance  to  all  those  in  any 
way  interested  in  mining.  The  information  thus 
acquired  is  of  value  in  determining  the  best  way 
of  developing  a  deposit  and  indicating  places  where 
similar  types  are  to  be  looked  for  with  the  probable 
conditions  to  be  encountered. 

Considerable  information  concerning  the  deposits 
of  minerals  is  gathered  by  the  Geological  Survey 
and  given  to  the  public  by  means  of  its  publications, 
various  maps  and  correspondence.  The  work  of  the 
Geological  Survey  in  this  respect  can  be  classified 
as  follows: 

(a)  The  geographic  distribution  of  deposits, 
which  furnishes  information  concerning  those  places 
from  which  certain  supplies  can  be  secured,  thus 
eliminating  the  search  in  unpromising  areas.    With 


Work  Done  for  Mining  Industry        221 

a  complete  inventory  of  the  places  where  the  desired 
mineral  occurs,  the  miner,  the  investor,  and  the  user 
of  this  particular  mineral  knows  where  to  search  for 
same.  The  facts  are  acquired  by  the  geologists  in 
the  course  of  the  numerous  field  investigations  that 
are  constantly  in  progress.  Although  new  informa- 
tion may  disclose  new  deposits,  the  general  distribu- 
tion of  all  the  more  important  minerals  in  the 
United  States  has  already  been  fairly  well  worked 
out. 

(b)  The  extent  of  the  various  mineral  deposits 
is  of  nearly  as  vital  importance  as  their  location. 
The  business  man  needs  to  know  the  size  of  the  de- 
posit he  is  developing  or  using.  The  determinations 
of  extent  must  take  into  account  not  only  the  hori- 
zontal or  surface  extent  of  the  deposit,  but  must 
predict  so  far  as  possible  the  vertical  extent  of  the 
deposits  in  question.  Geological  insight  and  inter- 
pretation are  required  for  this  factor  and  the  work 
is  therefore  done  by  geologists  specially  trained 
through  long  experience  in  dealing  with  deposits  of 
similar  character  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

(c)  The  necessity  for  knowledge  concerning  the 
geologic  mode  of  occurrence  of  deposits  is  that  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  known  deposits  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  predict  conditions  which  will  be  en- 
countered in  undeveloped  deposits.  Therefore  a 
large  part  of  the  Survey  geologist's  investigations 
must   regard   the   conditions   shown   in   developed 


222  Use  Your  Government 

mines.  This  knowledge  must  be  used  not  only  in 
further  scientific  studies,  but  must  be  presented  to 
the  business  man  so  that  he  can  draw  his  inferences 
regarding  the  deposit  he  is  contemplating  develop- 
ing or  using. 

(d)  The  statistical  work  of  the  Survey  regarding 
the  uses  and  quantities  of  mineral  deposits  is 
greatly  used  by  the  mining  industry.  The  Survey 
is  in  close  personal  touch  with  practically  all  the  in- 
dividual mine  owners  and  operators  and  collects 
from  them  information  which  is  compiled  by  trained 
geologists^  competent  not  only  to  properly  classify 
each  year's  production,  but  to  discuss  its  relation 
to  the  nation's  and  the  world's  reserve  of  mineral 
wealth.  The  Survey's  volume,  ''Mineral  Resources," 
is  in  fact  an  annual  encyclopedia  and  inventory  of 
the  nation's  mineral  resources. 

The  results  of  the  statistical  inquiries  are  making 
the  Survey  more  and  more  used  as  a  clearing  house 
of  information  concerning  the  mineral  resources  of 
the  country.  The  information  is  made  available  to 
inquirers  through  formal  publications  and  corre- 
spondence, giving  detailed  information  such  as  the 
location  of  deposits  of  minerals,  both  those  that  are 
developed  and  those  that  are  undeveloped,  and  the 
names  of  those  who  can  supply  the  different  min- 
erals. At  the  present  time  statistics  regarding 
nearly  100  separate  mineral  products  are  compiled 
and  technical  details  concerning  each  received  and 


Work  Done  for  Mining  Industry        223 

made  available  for  general  use.     (See  also  page 
211.) 

Further  publications  of  the  Survey  are  the  re- 
ports on  its  work  issued  as  monographs,  chapters 
and  volumes  on  mineral  resources,  folios,  profes- 
sional papers,  bulletins,  annual  reports  and  water 
supply  papers  and  special  publications,  as  well  as 
maps.  (See  page  216.)  All  these  are  free  of  charge, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  which  are  sold  at  a 
nominal  charge. 

The  Geological  Survey  receives  about  13,000  let- 
ters each  month  and  more  than  that  are  sent  out  in 
reply  or  to  initiate  investigations.  Of  this  number 
about  a  half  relate  solely  to  requests  for  publica- 
tions, the  other  half  of  the  correspondence  relating 
to  technical  and  scientific  inquiries.  These  inquiries 
vary  greatly  in  their  scope  and  in  the  subject  matter 
— covering  all  phases  of  the  Survey's  activities. 
Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Mines  was  created  not 
Mines.  only  to  reduce  the  death  toll  among  the 

miners  (see  page  281),  but  to  assist  the  manufac- 
turers of  the  country  in  industrial  research. 

For  instance,  in  regard  to  coal  mining. 

Before  the  Bureau  was  created  coal  was  bought 
either  under  a  trade  name,  or  merely  as  coal,  irre- 
spective of  its  heating  value.  Through  results  of 
the  work  of  the  Bureau  most  of  the  industries 
throughout  the  country  are  now  buying  coal  on  what 
is  known  as  a  specification  basis,  which  states  a 


22 4»  Use  Your  Government 

minimum  number  of  British  thermal  units  accept- 
able and  also  a  maximum  amount  of  ash.  If  more 
heat  units  are  furnished,  a  premium  is  paid;  if  less 
heat  units,  la  penalty.  This  also  applies  to  the 
amount  of  ash. 

The  Bureau  maintains  at  Pittsburgh,  Pennsyl- 
vania, its  principal  experiment  station,  where  in- 
vestigations into  the  theory  of  combustion  are  made. 
The  result  of  these  investigations  has  been  to  teach 
the  engineers  and  firemen  economical  methods  of 
burning  coal. 

In  order  that  the  big  consumers  of  coal  may  ob- 
tain coal  that  is  suitable  for  the  special  design  of 
furnace  used,  the  Bureau  some  years  ago  began  a 
systematic  sampling  of  all  that  was  mined  in  the 
country.  It  has  already  issued  several  reports  con- 
taining the  analyses  of  these  coals,  which  have  led 
to  a  more  intelligent  and  a  more  economical  pur- 
chase thereof.  From  the  analyses  of  the  Bureau  an 
engineer  may  learn  where  he  can  purchase  coal  suit- 
able for  his  purpose  at  the  cheapest  price.  A  New 
York  manufacturer  may  have  been  purchasing  coal 
from  a  West  Virginia  mine,  and  learn  that  he  may 
purchase  a  quality  equally  as  good  from  Pennsyl- 
vania with  much  less  haulage  and  transportation 
charges. 

The  Bureau  of  Mines  has  conducted  research 
work  to  show  how  deposit  of  high  grade  ores  may 
be  treated  more  economically  and  has  endeavored 


Work  Done  for  Mining  Industry/        225 

to  find  processes  whereby  the  millions  of  tons  of 
low  grade  ores  might  be  commercially  utilized. 

The  Bureau  now  has  seven  experiment  stations, 
scattered  throughout  the  country,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  work  on  metallurgical  problems.  By  a  law  enacted 
in  Congress  two  years  ago,  ten  experiment  stations 
were  provided  for,  to  be  established  three  each  year, 
and  in  many  instances  these  act  in  cooperation  with 
mining  companies. 

The  Bureau,  realizing  the  enormous  losses  in  the 
production  of  petroleum  and  natural  gas,  some 
years  ago  undertook  a  systematic  campaign  of 
education  regarding  these.  Expert  oil-well  drillers 
were  employed  by  the  Bureau  and  sent  to  the  va- 
rious fields  to  introduce  what  is  known  as  the  "mud- 
laden  fluid  method,"  which  is  now  in  general  use, 
and  waste  of  fuel  has  now  been  stopped  to  a  very 
great  extent. 

Investigations  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  and 
the  Geological  Survey  have  caused  experts  to  be- 
lieve that  the  country  has  now  reached  the  maximum 
of  its  production  of  petroleum,  and  that  there  may 
be  a  steady  decline  in  the  yield.  The  Bureau  of 
Mines  is,  therefore,  endeavoring  to  find  other  re- 
sources for  the  gasoline  which  comes  from  petro- 
leum. 

Interesting  experiments  were  made  by  the  Bu- 
reau concerning  radium,  the  results  of  which  have 
been  that  radium  can  at  least  be  supplied  to  the 


226  Use  Your  Government 

hospitals  of  the  Army,  Navy  and  Public  Health  Ser- 
vice at  a  cost  of  one- third  of  the  price  at  which  it  has 
been  obtained  from  foreign  producers. 

The  Bureau  is  also  making  successful  experiments 
with  regard  to  the  production  of  potash. 

The  results  of  all  the  investigations  of  the  Bureau 
are  published  for  the  benefit  of  the  general  pubHc, 
more  than  a  million  publications  being  distributed 
each  year.  The  greater  bulk  of  these  goes  to  men 
connected  with  the  various  industries  which  have 
been  benefited  by  the  researches  of  the  Bureau. 

(b)  The  Fishing  Industry 

Bureau  of  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries 
Fisheries,  forms  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  ef- 
fective conservation  movements  undertaken  by  the 
Federal  Government. 

Its  establishment  was  due  to  the  widespread 
opinion  that  fisheries  in  general  were  diminishing  in 
value  and  importance  on  account  of  the  intensity 
and  methods  with  which  they  were  being  developed. 
The  investigations  carried  on  by  the  American  Fish- 
eries Society  confirmed  this  fact  and  largely  through 
the  influence  and  representations  of  states'  fishery 
officers,  Congress  passed  a  joint  resolution,  approved 
in  February,  1871,  which  provided  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  commissioner  of  fish  and  fisheries,  who 
was  directed  to  conduct  investigations  concerning 


1 


Work  Done  for  Fishing  Industry       227j 

the  facts  and  the  causes  of  the  alleged  dimiimtion 
and  to  recommend  measures  to  remedy  the  same. 

Until  July  1,  1903,  this  organization  was  known  as 
the  United  States  Commission  of  Fisheries,  but  on 
the  organization  of  the  Department  of  Commerce 
and  Labor  it  was  included  by  law  in  the  new  De- 
partment and  the  name  was  changed  to  Bureau  of 
Fisheries.  When  the  Department  was  subdivided, 
the  Bureau  was  retained  in  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce. 

The  original  conception  of  the  Bureau  was  a  body 
for  scientific  statistical  and  practical  investigation 
of  the  fisheries  and  that  phase  of  its  work  has  al- 
ways been  prominent ;  but  it  was  soon  found  that  to 
secure  the  practical  end  which  dictated  its  formation 
it  would  have  to  be  given  additional  functions.  This 
was  in  part  accomplished  by  an  Act  approved  on 
June  10,  1872,  which  gave  authority  for  the  prop- 
agation of  food  fishes,  a  branch  of  the  service 
which  has  grown  until  at  present  it  constitutes  the 
largest  part  of  the  Bureau's  activities. 

The  policy  has  been  to  carry  out  the  idea  that  it 
is  better  to  expend  a  small  amount  of  public  money 
in  making  fish  so  abundant  that  they  can  be  caught 
with  a  minimum  of  restriction  and  serve  as  cheap 
food  for  the  people  at  large  than  to  expend  a  much 
larger  sum  in  preventing  the  people  from  catching 
the  few  fish  that  still  remain  after  generations  of 
improvidence.     Public  or  government  fish  culture 


228  Use  Your  Government 

has  in  America  attained  tremendous  proportions 
and  exceeds  in  extent  and  importance  that  of  all  the 
other  countries  combined. 

Scientific  Division.  The  scientific  work  for  which 
the  Bureau  was  originally  created  has  grown  greatly 
in  both  quantity  and  scope.  It  embraces  a  study  of 
the  habits,  distribution,  diseases  and  classification 
of  fishes  and  other  aquatic  animals,  especially  those 
of  commercial  importance,  and  of  their  food  and 
enemies.  As  any  organism  is  controlled  more  or 
less  by  its  environment,  the  study  of  a  commercial 
species  involves  investigation  of  the  other  animals 
and  plants  with  which  it  is  directly  or  indirectly 
associated  and  of  the  physical  and  chemical  char- 
acters of  the  waters  in  which  it  lives.  The  informa- 
tion necessary  as  a  basis  for  the  conservation  and 
improvement  of  the  fisheries,  therefore,  covers  a 
wide  field  in  aquatic  biology,  physics  and  chemistry 
which  is  embraced  in  the  scientific  work  of  the 
Bureau. 

Division  of  Inquiry  Respecting  Food  Fishes. 
This  Division  continues  the  work  for  which  the 
Bureau  was  originally  instituted.  The  scientific 
work  covers  the  field  of  aquatic  biology.  In  order  to 
understand  the  requirements  for  the  protection  and 
fostering  of  the  fishes  it  is  necessary  to  know  not 
only  the  complete  life  histories  of  all  the  species  of 
direct  economic  value,  but  also  the  habits,  food  and 


Work  Done  for  Fishing  Industry       229 

enemies  of  those  species,  and  their  relations  to  their 
physical  and  biological  environments. 

This  Division  also  conducts  investigations  and  ex- 
periments tending  directly  to  the  increase  of  eco- 
nomic aquatic  animals,  especially  those  which,  like 
sponges,  oysters,  mussels  and  terrapin,  are  from 
their  habits  and  nature  not  susceptible  to  the  ordi- 
nary method  of  fish  culture. 

The  investigations  and  experiments  are  conducted 
by  field  parties  or  at  the  biological  stations.  There 
are  also  one  specially  equipped  steamer  for  deep- 
sea  investigations,  one  for  coastal  work  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  craft  for  inshore  and  river  duty. 

The  small  permanent  staff  which  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  work  of  more  direct  economic  appli- 
cation is  supplemented  when  occasion  arises  by  the 
employment  of  experts  and  investigators  from  sci- 
entific institutions. 

An  important  feature  of  the  work  of  this  Division 
lies  in  furnishing  to  the  several  states  advice  and 
facts  relating  to  fisheries  legislation  and  administra- 
tion. 

Some  of  the  practical  scientific  aids  which  the  Bu- 
reau has  extended  the  fisheries  in  recent  years  con- 
sists of  the  location  of  new  fishing  grounds,  the 
development  of  markets  and  means  of  using  wasted 
or  neglected  fishery  resources;  the  development  of 
methods  of  sponge,  terrapin,  and  fresh-water  mus- 
sel culture;  causes  of  disease  in  fishes;  surveys  of 


230  Use  Your  Government 

oyster  bottoms  and  recommendations  for  their  con- 
servation and  utilization;  recommendations  for 
state  fishery  legislation,  etc. 

Statistical  Division.  This  Division  performs  an- 
other of  the  original  functions  of  the  Bureau.  The 
first  duty  to  which  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  was  as- 
signed, namely,  the  investigation  of  the  reported 
decrease  of  food  fishes  in  New  England,  necessarily 
involved  the  collection  of  statistics  of  production, 
personal,  and  capital.  Since  that  time  this  branch 
of  the  work  has  been  conducted  without  interrup- 
tion, and  in  it  have  naturally  been  included  the 
various  other  subjects  affecting  the  economic  and 
commercial  aspects  of  the  fisheries.  Among  its 
functions  are:  (1)  a  general  survey  of  the  commer- 
cial fisheries  of  the  country;  (2)  a  study  of  the  fish- 
ery grounds  with  reference  to  their  extent,  re- 
sources, yield,  and  conditions;  (3)  a  study  of  the 
vessels  and  boats  employed  in  the  fisheries,  with 
special  reference  to  their  improvement;  (4)  a  de- 
termination of  the  utility  and  effect  of  the  appar- 
atus of  capture  employed  in  each  fishery;  (5)  a 
study  of  the  methods  of  fishing,  for  the  special  pur- 
pose of  suggesting  improvements  or  of  discovering 
the  use  of  unprofitable  or  unnecessarily  destructive 
methods;  (6)  an  inquiry  into  the  methods  of  utiliz- 
ing fishery  products  (including  recipes  for  the  cook- 
ing of  fish,  see  page  328),  the  means  and  methods  of 
transportation,  and  the  extent  and  condition  of  the 


Work  Done  for  Fishing  Industry/       231 

wholesale  trade;  (7)  a  census  of  the  fishing  popula- 
tion, their  economic  and  hygienic  condition,  nativity^ 
and  citizenship;  (8)  a  study  of  international  ques- 
tions affecting  the  fisheries;  (9)  the  prosecution  of 
inquiries  regarding  the  fishing  apparatus  and  meth- 
ods of  foreign  countries. 

Periodical  canvasses  are  made  usually  by  geo- 
graphical regions,  namely,  the  New  England  States, 
Middle  Atlantic  States,  South  Atlantic  States,  Gulf 
States,  Pacific  Coast  States,  Mississippi  Eiver  and 
Tributaries,  Great  Lakes,  minor  interior  waters,  and 
Alaska.  In  the  last  few  years  unusually  compre- 
hensive statistical  reports  have  been  published  on 
the  oyster,  menhaden,  lobster,  shrimp  and  fresh- 
water mussels.  This  statistical  information  is  not 
only  of  immediate  interest  to  the  fishing  industries, 
but  is  highly  important  as  a  basis  for  determining 
the  necessity  and  the  measures  for  the  regulation 
and  conservation  of  the  fisheries. 

Fish  Culture.  The  Division  of  the  service  cover- 
ing Fish  Culture  has  under  its  direction  all  opera- 
tions connected  with  the  artificial  propagation  and 
distribution  of  fishes.  Its  practical  work  in  1917 
was  conducted  through  55  fish  cultural  stations,  and 
94  sub-  or  field-stations,  located  in  35  states  and 
the  territory  of  Alaska  and  six  specially  devised 
railway  cars  engage  in  distributing  their  products. 

It  is  the  endeavor  of  the  Bureau  to  hatch  and 
plant  fishes  in  sufficiently  large  numbers  to  com- 


232  Use  Your  Government 

pensate  for  the  reduction  of  the  natural  supply 
through  the  fisheries  and  the  volume  of  its  output 
has  steadily  increased  until  in  1917  it  aggregated 
5,158,963,293  fish  and  eggs.  These  operations  have 
materially  benefited  some  fisheries  and  have  saved 
others  from  complete  extinction. 

This  Division  has  also  cal-ried  on  particularly 
successful  work  in  introducing  valuable  fishes  in 
waters  to  which  they  were  not  indigenous  and  in 
rescuing  fishes  in  overflowed  lands  where  the  reces- 
sion of  the  waters  would  leave  them  stranded  to  die. 
This  part  of  the  Bureau's  work  is  carried  on  inde- 
pendently or,  where  public  interest  dictates,  in  co- 
operation with  the  states. 

The  stocking  of  waters  with  food  fishes  is  a  direct 
benefit  to  the  public  not  only  in  increasing  the  ma- 
terial that  supports  an  enormous  industry  but  in 
providing  food  and  recreation  for  the  individual 
who  will  use  his  hook  and  line. 

Fish  cultural  stations  are  established  by  Act  of 
Congress  and  their  locations  and  construction  are 
determined  by  the  Bureau  after  a  careful  survey 
of  the  available  site  in  a  given  state.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  hatcheries  with  their  regular  staff  and 
living  quarters,  there  are  maintained  numerous 
hatcheries  or  substations  which  from  the  nature  of 
their  work  do  not  require  a  permanent  force  and 
are  therefore  for  economic  and  administrative  con- 
siderations operated  as  adjuncts  of  nearby  hatch- 


Work  Done  for  Fishing  Industry       233 

eries.  There  is  still  another  type  of  culture  station, 
known  as  Field  or  Collecting  Stations,  which  serve 
as  temporaiy  headquarters  for  parties  engaged  in 
obtaining  eggs  from  wild  fishes. 

Fishes  are  distributed  at  various  stages  of  devel- 
opment according  to  the  species,  the  numbers  in  the 
hatcheries  and  the  facilities  for  rearing.  To  insure 
the  best  results  from  plants  of  fish,  applicants  are 
required  to  furnish  full  information  as  to  the  physi- 
cal character  and  present  inhabitants  of  the  waters  \ 
to  be  stocked,  and  a  suitable  species  of  fish  for  plant- 
ing therein  is  determined  by  the  Bureau.  Black  bass, 
for  instance,  are  not  furnished  for  waters  stocked 
with  trout,  which  they  would  destroy.  Nor  are  trout 
consigned  to  waters  already  inhabited  by  predaceous 
fishes.  The  number  of  fish  allotted  to  any  applicant 
is  governed  by  the  available  supply  of  that  species 
and  the  area  and  character  of  the  water  in  question. 
The  Bureau  attempts  only  to  furnish  a  liberal  brood 
stock,  expecting  that  the  fish  will  be  protected  until 
they  have  had  time  to  reproduce. 

The  first  consideration  in  the  distribution  of  fishes 
is  to  make  ample  returns  to  the  waters  from  which 
eggs  or  fish  have  been  collected.  The  remainder  of 
the  product  is  consigned  to  suitable  public  or  private 
waters.  All  the  applications  for  fish  for  private 
waters  and  many  of  those  for  public  streams  and 
lakes  are  transmitted  through  and  receive  the  en- 
dorsement of  the  United  States  Senator  or  Repre- 


234  Use  Your  Government 

sentative.  The  fish  are  carried  to  their  destination 
in  railroad  cars  or  by  messengers  who  accompany 
the  shipments  in  baggage  cars.  During  the  year 
1917  the  Bureau  received  9,771  applications  for  fish. 

Fish  are  delivered  to  applicants  free  of  charge  at 
the  railroad  station  nearest  the  point  of  deposit. 
For  this  purpose  the  Bureau  maintains  a  special 
car  and  messenger  service,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  the  fish  cultural  work.  In 
the  early  days  baggage  cars  were  employed,  but 
these  have  now  been  supplanted  by  an  equipment 
which  not  only  affords  more  safety  to  fish  and  com- 
fort to  attendants,  but  makes  it  possible  to  trans- 
port the  fish  much  greater  distances  and  with 
smaller  percentage  of  loss. 

Until  recently  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  had  no  ex- 
ecutive duties  in  the  enforcement  of  fishery  regula- 
tions, although  in  its  advisoiy  capacity  it  exercised 
large  influence  over  fishery  legislation.  It  is  now 
charged,  however,  with  the  enforcement  of  laws  re- 
lating to  the  salmon  fisheries  and  the  fur-bearing 
animals  in  Alaska.    (See  page  235.) 

The  Salmon  Service,  besides  being  charged  T\'ith 
the  enforcement  of  laws  and  regulations  relating 
to  salmon  and  other  fisheries  of  Alaska,  supervises 
the  inspection  of  fisheries,  canneries,  salteries, 
hatcheries,  and  other  establishments.  It  also  makes 
such  investigations  and  experiments  as  may  be  de- 


o 


o 


o 

O 

fac 


Work  Done  for  the  Fur  Trade        235 

sirable  or  necessary  for  the  improvement  and  con- 
servation of  the  salmon  and  other  fisheries. 

The  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  con- 
sist of  four  series:  (1)  the  annual  reports  of  the 
Commissioner  and  various  special  reports  on  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  work;  (2)  the  annual  bulletin, 
which  is  made  up  of  papers  on  miscellaneous  sub- 
jects, generally  of  a  technical  nature;  (3)  economic 
circulars,  consisting  of  brief  timely  reports  upon 
economic  subjects;  (4)  statistical  bulletins  giving 
in  tabular  form  monthly  and  annual  statements  of 
the  quantity  and  value  of  fish  and  aquatic  products 
landed  at  the  principal  fishing  centers.  (See  page 
211.) 

(c)     The  Fur  Trade 

The  Bureau  of  Fisheries  is  charged  with  the  en- 
forcement of  laws  relating  to  the  fur-bearing  ani- 
Bureau  of  Dials  in  Alaska.  It  has  entire  adminis- 
Fisheries.  trative  control  over  the  Pribilof  Islands, 
their  native  inhabitants  and  the  fur-seal  herds  which 
resort  to  them  during  the  breeding  season.  The 
islands  of  Saint  Paul  and  Saint  George  were  set 
aside  at  a  special  reservation  in  1869,  the  entire 
group  following  in  1910,  for  Government  super- 
vision. The  Islands  are  the  only  lands  to  which  the 
Alaskan  fur-seals  go  for  breeding  purposes,  and  the 
administration  of  a  fur-seal  service  is  concerned 
with  the  care  and  utilization  of  the  seals,  the  taking 


236  Use  Your  Government 

and  marketing  of  the  skins,  the  maintenance  and 
education  of  the  natives  of  the  Islands,  care  and 
utilization  of  the  fox  herds  and  the  protection  of 
other  animals  found  on  the  Islands.  The  sealing 
privileges  were  for  forty  years  leased  to  private 
companies  which  paid  the  Government  a  tax  on  each 
seal.  Since  April,  1910,  however,  the  Government 
has  had  in  its  own  charge  the  business  of  taking 
and  marketing  seal  skins. 

For  five  years  prior  to  August  24,  1917,  by  Act 
of  Congress,  the  killing  of  seals  was  limited  to  such 
males  as  were  required  for  food  for  the  natives,  but 
after  the  date  mentioned,  killing  on  a  commercial 
basis  was  resumed. 

It  is  the  duty  of  this  part  of  the  service  to  see 
that  the  regulations  for  the  protection  of  fur-bear- 
ing animals  are  observed,  and  to  make  investiga- 
tions in  regard  to  the  abundance,  distribution, 
habits,  food,  diseases,  etc.,  and  the  condition  of  the 
fur  in  different  localities  at  different  seasons. 

It  is  also  the  duty  of  the  service  to  inspect  as  far 
as  possible  the  furs  offered  for  shipment  from 
Alaska  and  to  enforce  the  regulations  concerning 
shipment. 

The  Biological  Survey  is  carrying  on  extensive 
experiments  in  breeding  fur-bearing  animals  for 
Biological  commercial  purposes.  These  animals 
Survey.  are  kept  in  enclosures  and  various  meth- 
ods of  feeding  and  handling  them  are  being  tested. 


Work  Done  for  the  Lumberman        237 


(d)      The  Lumberman 

Ripe  timber  on  the  National  Forests  is  sold  at  a 
fair  price  to  the  highest  bidder.  Anybody  may  pur- 
Forest  chase  it,  but  no  one  can  obtain  a  mon- 
Service.  opoly  of  it  or  hold  it  for  speculative  pur- 
poses. The  fewest  possible  number  of  restrictions 
are  imposed  upon  purchasers  and  only  such  as 
would  insure  the  areas  being  left  in  the  best  condi- 
tion for  future  growth.  Experienced  woodsmen 
estimate  the  quantity  and  quality  of  National  Forest 
timber  and  its  approximate  value  as  a  basis  for  the 
price  to  be  charged,  the  price  always  allowing  oppor- 
tunity for  a  fair  profit. 

Small  sales  of  timber  are  made  by  forest  officers 
on  the  ground  to  avoid  delay.  Larger  sales  are 
made  either  by  the  Supervisors  of  the  forests,  the 
District  Forester,  or  the  Forester,  according  to  the 
amount  desired. 

These  sales  of  timber  of  small  amounts  for  local 
use  are  encouraged  so  that  the  National  Forests  may 
serve  the  small  lumberman  and  consumer;  nine- 
tenths  of  the  sales  are  for  less  than  $100  worth  of 
timber. 

The  Forest  Service  collects  and  publishes  statis- 
tics on  the  price  of  lumber  at  the  mill  and  studies 
and  publishes  lumber  specifications  and  grading 
rules.     The  experiments  conducted  at  the  Forest 


238  Use  Your  Government  ij 

Service  laboratory  are  of  great  assistance  to  the  | 
lumberman.    (See  page  244.)  ; 

The  Forest  Service  cooperates  with  private  lum- 
ber land  owners  by  furnishing  advice  concerning  the  | 
best  methods  of  managing  and  protecting  their  for-  | 
est  holdings.  It  also  cooperates  with  them  and  the  ! 
states  in  protecting  from  fire  the  forest  cover  on  the  ; 
watersheds  of  navigable  streams.  ! 

'') 
I ; 

(e)      The  Shipper  ', 

Shipping  The  United   States   Shipping  Board  ; 

Board.  was  founded  according  to  the  Act  of  j 

Congress  approved  on  the  7th  of  September,  1916.  ! 
Under  this  bill  its  functions  are  as  follows: 

(However,  the  exigencies  of  war  have  placed  upon 
the  Shipping  Board  the  obligation  of  providing  ships 
for  the  transportation  of  troops,  food,  munition, 
etc.,  to  which  it  has  given  its  entire  energy.) 

(1)  To  regulate  carriers  by  water  engaged  in 
foreign  and  interstate  commerce  of  the  United 
States  and  for  other  purposes.  * 

(2)  To  make  investigations  as  to  the  relative  cost 
of  constructing  vessels  at  home  and  abroad;  to  ex- 
amine the  rules  under  which  vessels  are  constructed 
at  home  and  abroad ;  to  investigate  matters  relating 
to  marine  insurance  and  the  classification  and  rating  '; 
of  vessels.  I 

(3)  To  examine  the  navigation  laws  of  the  United   i 


Work  Done  for  the  Shipper  239 

States  and  make  such  recommendations  to  Congress 
as  it  may  deem  necessary  for  the  improvement  and 
revision  of  such  laws. 

(4)  To  regulate  operations  of  common  carriers  in 
both  interstate  and  foreign  commerce,  and  provide 
penalties  for  the  violation  of  its  provisions.  Car- 
riers are  required  to  file  with  the  Board  copies  of 
any  agreements  they  may  have  with  other  carriers 
or  persons  relating  to  the  regulation  of  rates,  pool- 
ing of  earnings,  number  and  character  of  sailings 
between  various  ports,  etc. 

(5)  Sworn  complaints  setting  forth  violations  of 
the  Act  may  be  filed  with  the  Board  by  a  common 
carrier  by  water  or  other  person  coming  under  the 
Act.  A  method  is  provided  for  the  adjusting  of  such 
complaints. 

(6)  To  investigate  the  action  of  foreign  govern- 
ments with  respect  to  privileges  afforded  and  bur- 
dens imposed  upon  vessels  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  make  a  report  of  the  result  of  such  investigations. 

(7)  Methods  of  enforcing  the  orders  of  the  Board, 
whether  for  the  performance  of  certain  acts  or  for 
the  payment  of  money  awarded  as  damages  by  the 
Board  are  provided. 

Coast  and  ^^^  Coast  and  G^eodetio  Survey  is 
Geodetic  charged  with  the  survey  of  the  coasts  of 
Survey.  ^he  United  States  and  the  coasts  under 
the  jurisdiction  thereof,  as  well  as  the  publication  of 
charts  covering  same. 


240  Use  Your  Government 

This  Survey  and  its  charts  include  a  full  and  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  coast,  its  nature  and  form, 
the  character  of  the  sea  bottom  near  it,  the  location 
of  reefs,  shoals  and  other  dangers,  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  tides,  the  direction  and  strength  of  currents 
and  the  character  and  amount  of  magnetic  disturb- 
ance. 

The  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  publishes  650  dif- 
ferent charts,  distributing  annually  about  250,000  of 
such,  which  are  used  for  the  safe  guidance  of  vessels 
not  only  by  the  Navy  Coast  Guard  and  Merchant 
Marine,  but  by  privately  owned  vessels  as  well. 

The  publications  of  the  Survey  consist  of  annual 
reports,  charts  upon  various  scales  (including  sail- 
ing charts),  general  charts  of  the  coast  and  harbor 
charts ;  tide  tables  issued  annually  in  advance ;  coast 
pilots  with  sailing  directions  covering  the  navigable 
waters;  notices  to  mariners  (published  jointly  by 
the  Survey  and  the  Bureau  of  Lighthouses),  which 
are  issued  weekly  and  contain  current  information 
necessary  for  safe  navigation.  It  has  also  published 
about  1,350  technical  publications. 
Weather  The  Ocean  Service  of  the  Weather 

Bureau.         Bureau  collects  through  the  cooperation 
of  vessel  masters  and  others  observations  at  sea. 

The  recent  developments  in  the  art  of  radioteleg- 
raphy  has  made  it  possible  to  transmit  weather 
observations  made  by  ships  at  sea  to  shore  stations 
and  from  there  by  land  lines  to  a  central  service. 


Work  Done  for  the  Shipper  241 

Tlie  Weather  Bureau  has  organized  a  system  of 
observations  on  vessels  navigating  the  coastal  wa- 
ters of  the  Middle  and  South  Atlantic  States,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  primary 
object  of  this  is  to  gain  information  of  sub-tropical 
storms  which  occasionally  traverse  the  above-named 
waters.  A  similar  service  is  also  maintained  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Warnings  of  storms  and  hurricanes  are  issued  for 
the  benefit  of  marine  interests  and  are  of  important 
pecuniary  value.  Storm  warnings  are  displayed  at 
more  than  three  hundred  points  along  the  Atlantic, 
Pacific  and  Gulf  coasts  and  the  shores  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  including  every  port  and  harbor  of  any  con- 
siderable importance.  Scarcely  a  storm  of  marked 
danger  to  maritime  interests  has  occurred  for  years 
for  which  ample  warning  have  not  been  issued  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  in  advance.  The  re- 
ports from  the  West  Indies  are  especially  valuable 
in  this  connection,  as  they  enable  the  Bureau  to  fore- 
cast with  great  accuracy  the  approach  of  those  de- 
structive hurricanes  which  during  the  period  from 
July  to  October  are  liable  to  sweep  the  Gulf  and  the 
Atlantic  coasts. 

The  sailings  of  the  immense  number  of  vessels 
engaged  in  ocean  and  lake  traffic  are  largely  de- 
termined by  these  warnings,  and  those  displayed  for 
a  single  hurricane  are  known  to  have  detained  on  the 


242  Use  Your  Government 

Atlantic  coast  vessels  valued  with  their  cargoes  at 
over  $30,000,000. 

The  Weather  Bureau  also  reports  vessels  passing 
exposed  points  on  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pacific 
coasts  to  the  owners  and  also  to  the  great  shipping 
centers. 

(/)      Scientific     Commercial    Investigations    with 
Agricultural  Products 

Bureau  of         Scientific    commercial    investigations 
Plant  are  being  carried  on  by  the  Bureau  of 

Industry.       pi^nt  Industry. 

Important  among  these  are  the  investigations 
made  of  tobacco.  These  were  commenced  in  1898, 
when  it  was  found  that  the  average  yield  of  profit 
per  acre  was  comparatively  small,  this  being  due 
primarily  to  the  growing  of  mixed  and  undesirable 
types,  failure  to  follow  sound  cultural  methods,  par- 
ticularly in  the  matter  of  crop  rotation  and  fertiliza- 
tion, damage  to  the  crops  from  insects  and  disease 
and  lack  of  understanding  of  the  vital  features  of 
successful  curing,  fermenting  and  handling  of  the 
leaf.  All  of  these  problems  are  taken  up,  resulting 
in  marked  improvements  in  the  old  methods  of  to- 
bacco production.  The  experiments  and  demonstra- 
tions show  that  the  yield  and  value  of  the  tobacco 
crop  can  easily  be  doubled  by  combining  well- 
planned  systems  of  rotation  with  the  use  of  proper 
quantities  and  forms  of  commercial  fertilizer. 


Scientific  Commercial  Investigations      243 

Investigations  are  also  being  made  with  regard  to 
the  manufacture  of  paper  with  new  plant  products. 
Chemical  and  physical  experiments  are  conducted 
in  the  investigation  of  plants  to  ascertain  the  best 
methods  of  treatment.  Laboratory  work  in  the 
manufacture  of  sample  sheets  of  paper  is  done  to 
demonstrate  the  value  of  process  and  product. 
Paper-making  tests  on  a  large  scale  are  conducted 
in  cooperation  with  manufacturers  to  demonstrate 
the  value  of  material  under  commerical  conditions 
of  manufacture. 

Experiments  are  being  made  with  European  oil 
plants  not  yet  used  in  this  country  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  vegetable  oils.  Possibilities  of  produc- 
ing oils  from  waste  products,  such  as  cherry  stones, 
tomato  seeds,  etc.,  in  connection  with  large  canner- 
ies are  also  being  tried  out. 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  more  uniform  drugs, 
the  Bureau  is  attempting  the  standardization  of  drug 
plants  by  determining  which  of  them  are  susceptible 
of  culture,  and  wherever  possible  the  Bureau  is  ad- 
vocating the  use  of  special  plantation  drugs  instead 
of  wild  drugs. 

Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  makes 
Chemistry,  chemical  investigations  of  a  varied  na- 
ture concerning  agricultural  commercial  products. 

Experiments  with  leather  and  canning  are  made 
to  determine  the  effect  of  various  canning  processes 
and  the  disposal  of  cannery  and  leather  wastes.    As 


244  Use  Your  Government 

a  result,  useful  information  is  drawn  up  relative  to 
the  purchase  of  leather  and  leather  articles  and  on 
the  composition  of  these  materials  relative  to  qual- 
ity. 

The  paper  laboratory  makes  investigations  to 
demonstrate  the  more  rational  and  economical  use 
of  paper  and  the  factors  which  control  its  suitability 
for  certain  purposes  as  well  as  its  durability. 

The  waterproofing  and  mildewing  of  fabrics  for 
farm  use  are  being  examined  by  the  Bureau. 

The  Bureau  is  also  conducting  experiments  on  a 
commercial  scale  regarding  the  scarcity  of  dyes  in 
this  country. 

Efforts  are  being  made  to  improve  the  quality  of 
rosin,  turpentine  and  other  wood  products. 

All  such  work  is  carried  out  by  the  Bureau  of 
Chemistry  in  direct  practise,  working  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  manufacturer. 

One  of  the  aims  of  forestry  is  to  see  that  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  forest  are  put  to  their  best  use  with 
Forest  least  waste.     Through  studies  of  wood 

Service.  uses  the  Forest  Service  aids  the  wood- 
consuming  industries  to  find  the  most  suitable  raw 
materials  and  to  develop  methods  of  utilizing  their 
waste  products.  It  also  investigates  methods  of  dis- 
posing of  wood  waste. 

A  Forest  Products  Laboratory  is  maintained  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  cooperation  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin.    Here  among  other  things  the 


Scientific  Commercial  Investigations      245 

physical  properties  of  wood  are  studied,  such  as  its 
strength.  Studies  are  also  made  at  the  laboratory 
of  its  seasoning  and  kiln  drying,  its  preservative 
treatment,  its  use  for  the  production  of  paper  pulp, 
fiber  board  and  the  like,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
alcohol,  turpentine,  rosin,  tar  and  other  chemical 
products.  It  also  develops  practical  ways  and 
means  of  using  wood  which  under  present  conditions 
is  being  wasted. 

The  Forest  Products  Laboratory  cooperates  with 
consumers  of  forest  products  in  improving  the  pres- 
ent methods  of  use;  also  in  formulating  specifica- 
tions and  grading  rules  for  commercial  woods  and 
materials  secured  from  them  and  for  materials  used 
in  the  preservative  treatment  of  wood. 

The  information  thus  gathered  it  gives  to  the 
public  through  printed  matter,  correspondence  and 
other  means.  Any  one  is  at  liberty  to  correspond 
with  the  laboratory  about  particular  problems  deal- 
ing with  the  utilization  of  wood  and  will  receive  an 
answer  based  on  whatever  information  is  available 
on  the  subject,  free  of  charge.  It  is  the  policy  of 
the  Forest  Service  to  secure  to  as  large  an  extent  as 
practicable  the  cooperation  of  the  wood-using  in- 
dustries most  directly  concerned  with  the  subjects  or 
problems  under  investigation.  The  desirability  of 
cooperation  and  its  exact  terms  will  be  determined 
in  each  specific  case. 

The  laboratory  may  on  request  examine  the  meth- 


246  Use  Your  Government 

ods  of  individuals  or  companies  in  handling  forest 
products  and  to  prepare  plans  for  improving  such 
methods,  provided  that  the  purpose  is  primarily  to 
reduce  waste  and  to  obtain  information  of  general 
value  to  the  industries  concerned. 

Re  statistics  collected  and  studies  made  informa- 
tion is  given. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  does  important  work  in 
cooperation  with  the  producers  on  all  raw  material 
of  food  and  drinks,  from  production  to  reaching 
the  consumer,  with  the  idea  of  a  minimum  amount 
of  waste,  such  as  the  preparation  of  fruit  sirups, 
vinegar,  oils,  canning  processes  of  all  kinds 
of  food,  etc.  Studies  are  being  made  with  re- 
gard to  citrus  fruits  and  the  making  of  mar- 
malade, which  are  to  be  submitted  to  practical  manu- 
facturers. Many  such  experiments  for  the  utiliza- 
tion of  fruits  and  vegetables  are  being  made,  for 
instance,  potato  drying  for  stock  feed,  the  manufac- 
ture and  utilization  of  potato  starch,  the  prepara- 
tion of  cider  in  concentrated  form  by  freezing,  the 
composition  of  grape  juice  and  the  preparation  of 
sirup  from  sugar-beets.  All  these  investigations  are 
made  in  cooperation  with  the  manufacturer  and  any 
information  concerning  them  is  at  the  disposal  of 
the  general  public. 

The  Bureau  also  does  work  with  regard  to  the 
utilization  of  waste  products  not  suitable  for  food. 
For  instance,  experiments  of  great  value  have  been 


Scientific  Commercial  Investigations      247 

concluded  on  citrus  fruits  which  are  in  some  way 
imperfect  and  unfit  for  food.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  have  developed  improved  methods  for 
making  marketable  products  such  as  citrate  of  lime, 
citric  acid,  etc. 

In  doing  the  regulatory  work  under  the  Food  and 
Drugs  Act  (see  page  331)  the  Bureau  often  discov- 
ers some  defect  in  the  making  of  a  product.  It  has 
been  found  that  manufacturers  and  dealers  gener- 
ally desire  to  comply  fully  with  the  law  and  handle 
only  pure  and  standard  products.  Many  of  them, 
however,  owing  to  a  lack  of  technical  knowledge  or 
suitable  equipment,  experience  difficulty  in  reaching 
the  standard  requirements  of  the  law.  The  Bureau 
in  such  cases,  where  it  seems  of  universal  interest  to 
the  public,  works  with  the  manufacturer  to  assist  him 
in  finding  a  method  of  making  the  goods  without  de- 
fect. 

Scientific  and  practical  investigations  are  made  of 
bee  culture  by  the  Bureau  of  Entomology.  Experi- 
Bureau  of  nients  are  tried  out  concerning  the  best 
Entomol-  methods  of  caring  for  bees  during  the 
ogy.  winter   in   all   sections    of   the   United 

States,  the  development  of  bees,  the  diseases  of  bees 
and  their  distribution  and  control. 

Commercial  bee-keeping  on  a  large  scale  is  studied 
and  the  results  given  to  the  farmers  through  publi- 
cations and  the  work  of  the  Demonstration  Agents. 
(See  page  125.) 


248  Use  Your  Government 


(g)    Development  of  Hydro-electric  Power 

The  water  resources  branch  of  the  Survey  main- 
tains about  1,300  gaging  stations,  to  obtain  daily  rec- 
Geological  ords  of  the  flow  of  most  of  the  impor- 
Survey.  tant  streams.  These  records  form  the 
basis  of  all  plans  for  work  or  operations  that 
depend  for  success  upon  the  quantity  of  sur- 
face water  available.  Special  studies  are  being 
made  in  both  the  Eastern  and  the  Western 
states  to  obtain  reliable  information  in  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  underground  water  available  for  ir- 
rigation and  for  domestic  use.  Samples  of  both  sur- 
face and  underground  water  have  been  taken  at  se- 
lected points  throughout  the  United  States  and  have 
been  analyzed,  so  that  a  great  amount  of  information 
on  the  quality  of  those  waters  is  now  available. 
These  analyses  have  been  extensively  used  in  locat- 
ing industrial  plants,  in  determining  suitable  water 
supplies  for  boiler  use,  in  selecting  city  water  sup- 
plies, and  in  developing  water  for  irrigation.  In  de- 
termining the  utility  of  the  water  supplies  of  the 
United  States,  the  Survey  has  collected  much  in- 
formation in  regard  to  storage,  power  possibilities 
and  the  classification  of  public  lands  with  respect  to 
the  development  of  their  water  resources.  Special 
reports  have  been  prepared  in  regard  to  disastrous 
floods,  and  the  records  of  the  flow  of  streams  were 


Development  of  Hydro-electric  Power     249 

extensively  used  in  solving  problems  of  drainage  and 
navigation. 

The  government  permits  private  enterprises  to 
develop  the  water  power  of  the  National  Forests  and 
Forest  there  is  relatively  more  hydro-electric 

Service.  development  in  the  National  Forests 
states  than  elsewhere.  Permits  for  such  enterprises 
usually  run  for  a  term  of  fifty  years  under  certain 
conditions  and  may  be  renewed  at  their  expiration 
upon  compliance  with  the  regulations. 

As  an  example  of  power  development  on  the  Na- 
tional Forests,  power  is  generated  on  the  Sierra  Na- 
tional Forests  in  California  for  use  in  the  city  of 
Los  Angeles,  more  than  200  miles  away. 

(h)     National  Parks 

National  The  National  Park  Service  adminis- 

Park  ters  the  National  Parks  which  have  been 

Service.  retained  by  the  Government,  of  which 
there  are  seventeen  in  number  as  per  table. 

The  Government  'has  realized  that  these  National 
Parks,  if  rightly  handled,  will  become  a  source  of 
national  wealth  as  well  as  a  means  to  popular  pleas- 
ure, education  and  inspiration. 

Besides  promoting  the  building  of  hotels  and 
camps  enough  to  accommodate  all  the  National  Park 
visitors  who  want  to  come,  the  Government  builds 
roads  and  trails  throughout  its  National  Parks  to 


National  parks  in 
order  of  creation 

Hot  Springs 

1832 

Yellowstone 

1872 

Casa  Grande  Ruin .... 

1889 

Sequoia 

1890 

Yosemite 

1890 

General  Grant 

1890 

Mount  Rainier 

1899 

Crater  Lake 

1902 

Wind  Cave 

1903 

Piatt 

1904 

SullysHiU 

1904 

Mesa  Verde 

1906 

Glacier 

1910 

Rocky  Mountain 

1915 

Hawaii 

1916 

Lassen  Volcanic 

1916 

Mount  McKinley 

1917 


Location 


Middle  Arkansas . 


Northwestern  Wyoming. 


Arizona . 


Middle  eastern  California. . 


Middle  eastern  California. 


Middle  eastern  California. 


West  central  Washington . 


Southwestern  Oregon . 


South  Dakota. 


Southern  Oklahoma. 


North  Dakota. 


Southwestern  Colorado. 


Northwestern  Montana.  .  .  . 


North  middle  Colorado. 


Hawaii. 


Northern  California. 


South  central  Alaska. 


Area  in 
square 
miles 


n 

3,348 

I 

252 

1,125 

4 

324 

249 

16 

H 

n 

77 

1,534 

398 

118 

124 

2,200 


250 


Nevada  Falls — Yosemite  National    Park,  one  of  tiio  loftiest  waterfalls 

in  the  ^Yorld. 


National  Parks  251 

enable  motorists,  horseriders  and  hikers  to  explore 
and  study  them  intimately.  It  builds  water  and 
sanitary  systems  and  it  polices  the  parks  with  capa- 
ble Eangers  whose  duties  also  include  the  protec- 
tion of  the  wild  animals  from  hunters  and  their  feed- 
ing during  winters  of  extraordinary  snow. 

By  opening,  developing  and  advertising  these  Na- 
tional Parks  the  Government  is  creating  for  the  na- 
tion at  large  an  asset  of  great  value.  Before  the 
war  citizens  of  the  United  States  were  spending 
$300,000,000  a  year  in  going  to  Europe,  of  which 
$50,000,000  were  spent  in  seeing  the  Swiss  Alps 
alone.  Besides  keeping  much  of  this  at  home,  the 
Government  contemplates  that  some  day  these 
scenes  of  the  National  Parks  will  draw  many  mil- 
lions a  year  of  Europe 's  money  to  these  shores. 


CHAPTER     III.— PROTECTION     AFFORDED 
THE  BUSINESS  MAN 

(a)     By  the  Federal  Trade  Commission 

The  Federal  ^^^  Federal  Trade  Commission  was 
Trade  created    in    September,    1915.      It    su- 

Commis-  perseded  the  old  Bureau  of  Corpo- 
^^^^'  rations  which  was  the  nucleus   of  its 

organization. 

The  Commission  is  to  the  interstate  business  of 
the  country  what  the  Interstate  Commerce  Conunis- 
sion  is  to  interstate  common  carriers  and  what  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board  is  to  banks.  The  Commis- 
sion, therefore,  has  no  power  either  over  banks  or 
railways. 

Furthermore,  the  Commission  is  intended  to  be  a 
supreme  court  for  business,  and  as  such  its  founders 
believe  it  will  coordinate  and  firmly  establish  a  na- 
tional code  of  business  ethics. 

Its  jurisdiction  f aUs  under : 

(a)  The  Trade  Commission  Act  by  which  it  was 
founded. 

(b)  Certain  sections  of  the  Clayton  Act. 

(c)  An  Act  to  Promote  Export  Trade. 
The  work  of  the  Commission  is  as  follows : 

252 


Federal  Trade  Commission  253 

(1)  The  Commission  may  act  by  direction  as  an 
agency  for  Congress  and  also  for  the  President  to 
investigate  the  abuses  in  commerce  or  trade  and 
their  relation  to  the  public,  as  stated  more  specifi- 
cally later  on  in  this  chapter. 

For  instance,  in  the  recent  gasoline  investigation 
a  resolution  was  passed  in  the  Senate  that  the  con- 
tinually soaring  prices  of  this  industry  should  be 
investigated.  The  result  showed  that  the  alleged 
shortage  of  gasoline  was  incorrect  and  prices  were 
lowered  through  the  publicity  given  to  the  investiga- 
tion and  force  of  public  opinion  which  followed 
thereon. 

(2)  To  investigate  on  its  own  initiative  interstate 
business  or  by  reason  of  public  complaint,  when 
deemed  necessary.  The  results  of  such  investiga- 
tion may,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Commission,  be  re- 
ported to  Congress,  with  suggestions  for  legislation 
intending  to  correct  any  existing  abuses  found. 

The  Commission  may  be  said  to  be  the  Govern- 
ment's representative  of  the  business  man,  sub- 
jected to  the  wrongs  of  unfair  competition  by  a  com- 
petitor. 

As  such  the  Commission  receives  complaints  from 
any  manufacturer,  wholesaler  or  retailer  regardless 
of  the  volume  of  business  done. 

Before  taking  any  legal  steps  the  Commission  in- 
vestigates the  points  in  question.  If  these  are  found 
to  be  groundless,  it  so  informs  the  complainant  and 


254  Use  Your  Government 

no  harmful  publicity  of  any  kind  is  attached  to  the 
accused. 

Should,  however,  the  complaint  appear  to  be  justi- 
fied, the  Commission,  through  its  legal  department,  i 
informs  the  accused  of  all  the  steps  thus  far  taken,  : 
presents  its  evidence  as  to  the  truth  of  the  accusa-  | 
tion  and  suggests  that  their  lawyers  or  representa-  i 
tives  get  together  with  the  representatives  of  the  | 
Commission  to  correct  the  unfair  business  methods  j 
of  competition  that  exist.  1 

°"lt  should  be  stated  that  in  the  big  majority  of  the 
cases  the  accused,  when  "found  guilty"  and  thus 
approached    informally   by   the    Commission,    con- 
forms to  the  suggestions  of  the  Commission  and   j 
eliminates  the  unfair  practises  which  have  been  em-   ! 
ployed  by  him.  * 

However,  if  they  refuse  so  to  do,  the  Commission  ; 
issues  a  formal  complaint  and  for  the  first  time  im-  ! 
plores  publicity  in  the  case.  ; 

Up  to  this  time,  all  steps  taken  by  the  Commission 
have  been  confidential  and  of  a  purely  friendly  char-  | 
acter.    As  stated,  however,  when  once  a  complaint  ' 
has  been  issued  it  is  a  matter  of  public  record  and  | 
is  not  only  available  to  all  the  parties  concerned  but 
to  the  general  public  likewise,  through  the  usual 
methods  of  publicity  (the  press,  etc.).    In  the  issu- 
ing of  the  initial  complaint  the  Commission  serves 
notice  to  the  defendant  that  the  charges  must  be  an- 
swered in  the  regular  legal  manner. 


Federal  Trade  Commission  255 

The  defendant  is  also  informed  that  he  will,  on  a 
certain  date  set,  have  a  chance  to  appear  before  the 
Commission  for  the  purpose  of  answering  in  detail 
the  charges  made  against  him.  If  the  charges  are 
refuted,  the  case  is  dismissed ;  if  the  charges,  how- 
ever, are  confirmed,  the  Commission  issues  an  order 
to  the  defendant  to  ''cease  and  desist"  the  practise 
charged. 

The  authority  of  the  United  States  courts  stands 
behind  this  order  and  these  courts  are  empowered 
to  receive  any  appeal  the  defendant  might  wish  to 
make. 

(3)  The  Commission  is  empowered  to  collect  and 
compile  data  from  any  corporation.  The  data  may 
be  used  in  various  ways ;  for  instance,  for  the  formu- 
lation of  uniform  accounting  methods  or  dissemina- 
tion of  more  efficient  selling  methods  to  various 
trades,  etc. 

In  this  way  the  Commission  is  able  to  assist  and 
advise  any  trade  that  may  appeal  to  it  for  advice  for 
efficient  and  less  costly  methods  in  the  carrying  on 
of  its  business. 

Investigators  of  the  Commission  are  sent  out  to 
the  most  important  plants  and  houses  of  the  par- 
ticular industry  and  all  possible  information  is  ob- 
tained. The  economists  of  the  Commission  and  its 
legal  department  are  put  to  work  on  the  complete 
data,  which  are  compiled  and  handed  to  the  trade  in 


256  Use  Your  Government 

question  by  means  of  reports,  letters  and  circulars, 
etc.,  as  may  seem  most  practicable. 

(4)  If,  in  the  course  of  such  investigation  or  any 
investigation  of  the  Commission,  the  results  suggest 
needed  legislation,  the  Commission  recommends  such 
legislation  to  Congress;  or  if  such  an  investigation 
uncovers  illegalities,  the  facts  are  reported  to  the 
proper  authorities  for  action. 

(5)  The  Attorney  General  may  apply  to  the  Com- 
mission for  the  readjustment  of  the  business  of  any 
corporation  charged  with  the  violation  of  the  Anti- 
Trust  Acts,  in  order  that  it  may  henceforth  main- 
tain its  organization  management  and  conduct  of 
business  without  these  laws  being  violated. 

(6)  The  Commission  from  time  to  time  investi- 
gates trade  conditions  in  foreign  countries  and  with 
foreign  countries,  where  such  trade  may  affect  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  United  States.  It  duly  reports 
these  investigations  to  Congress,  with  such  recom- 
mendations as  it  may  deem  advisable. 

(7)  The  Commission  has  jurisdiction  regarding 
the  question  of  ''price  discrimination."  Thus,  if  a 
manufacturer  or  concern  sold  goods  to  one  party  at 
a  certain  price,  it  would  be  unlawful  to  discriminate 
in  price  to  another  party  provided  that  the  condi- 
tions of  the  transaction  were  equal. 

(8)  The  Commission  has  jurisdiction  also  over 
the  enforcement  of  the  prohibition  of  rebates,  where 
such  rebates  have  the  effect  to  lessen  competition  or 


Federal  Trade  Commission  257 

to  create  a  monopoly  in  any  particular  line  of  com- 
merce. 

(9)  The  section  of  the  law  forbidding ' '  tying  con- 
tracts" is  enforced  by  the  Commission.  This  means 
that  it  is  unlawful  to  make  a  contract  for  the  sale  of 
a  certain  article  or  line  of  goods  with  the  proviso 
that  the  purchaser  shall  at  the  same  time  buy  some 
other  article  or  line  of  goods. 

(10)  The  Commission  enforces  the  clause  of  the 
law  which  maintains  that  no  person  at  the  same 
time  shall  be  director  in  several  corporations  en- 
gaged in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  having  a 
capital  of  more  than  one  million  dollars,  should  these 
in  any  sense  be  competitors  of  the  same  business. 

The  Commission  enforces  the  law  which  forbids 
that  one  company  should  hold  stocks  of  another  com- 
pany if  this  should  lessen  competition  between  the 
companies  concerned  or  tend  to  create  a  monoply. 

It  cooperates  with  the  various  departments  of  the 
Government,  supplying  them,  when  necessary,  infor- 
mation to  assist  them  in  their  several  jurisdictions. 
It  should,  however,  be  stated  that  any  information 
given  out  by  the  Commission  is  in  combined  figures 
and  facts,  not  revealing  any  data  concerning  par- 
ticular firms,  corporations  or  individuals. 


258  Use  Your  Government 

(b)     By  the  Federal  Reserve  Board 

Federal  The  functions  of  the  Federal  Eeserve 

Reserve         Board   concern   a   general    supervision 
Board.  over  the  whole  banking  system  in  the 

United  States,  the  Board  being  responsible  to  Con- 
gress and  reporting  annually  to  that  body. 
In  a  broad  sense  its  duties  are  as  follows : 

(1)  To  appoint  three  out  of  the  nine  directors  of 
every  Federal  Reserve  Bank,  also  a  minority  of  the 
directors  of  each  Federal  Eeserve  Bank. 

(2)  To  require  bonds  of  Federal  Reserve  Agents. 

(3)  To  suspend  or  remove  any  officer  or  director 
of  any  Federal  Reserve  Bank,  the  cause  of  such  re- 
moval to  be  forthwith  communicated  in  writing  by 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board  to  the  removed  officer 
or  director  and  to  the  said  Bank. 

(4)  To  pass  upon  applications  for  admittance  to 
membership  in  the  Federal  Reserve  System  of  State 
Banks  and  Trust  Companies. 

(5)  To  suspend  for  the  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  Act  the  operations  of  any  Federal 
Reserve  Bank,  to  take  possession  thereof,  admin- 
ister the  same  during  the  period  of  suspension  and 
when  deemed  advisable  to  liquidate  or  reorganize 
such  Bank. 

(6)  To  determine  or  regulate  the  rates  of  dis- 
count to  be  charged  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks 
for  each  class  of  paper,  these  rates  to  be  fixed  with 


Federal  Reserve  Board  259 

a  view  to  accommodating  commerce  and  business. 

(7)  To  permit  or  on  the  affirmative  vote  of  at 
least  five  members  of  the  Reserve  Board  to  require 
Federal  Reserve  Banks  to  rediscount  the  discounted 
paper  of  other  Federal  Reserve  Banks  at  rates  of 
interest  to  be  fixed  by  the  Board. 

(8)  To  supervise  and  regulate,  through  the  Bu- 
reau under  the  charge  of  the  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency, the  issue  and  retirement  of  Federal  Reserve 
notes,  and  to  prescribe  the  rules  and  regulations  un- 
der which  such  notes  may  be  delivered  by  the  Comp- 
troller to  the  Federal  Reserve  Agents  applying  for 
same. 

(9)  To  examine  the  accounts,  books  and  affairs  of 
each  Federal  Reserve  Bank  and  to  demand  such 
statements  and  reports  as  it  may  deem  necessary. 

(10)  To  require  the  writing  off  of  doubtful  or 
worthless  assets  upon  the  books  and  balance  sheets 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks. 

(11)  To  act  as  a  clearing  house  for  all  Federal 
Reserve  Banks.  In  this  capacity  it  manages  the  Re- 
serve Banks  ''Gold  Settlement  Fund"  of  about 
$335,000,000  (figures  of  November  8,  1917)  used  for 
the  transfer  of  funds  between  Reserve  Banks  on 
the  one  hand  and  between  Reserve  Banks  and  the 
Treasury  on  the  other;  also  for  the  weekly  settle- 
ment of  balances  due  to  the  banks  from  each  other. 
It  also  has  charge  of  a  fund  of  about  $350,000,000 
standing   to   the   credit   of   the    Federal   Reserve 


260  Use  Your  Government 

Agents,  used  for  the  transfer  of  funds  between  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Banks  and  Agents  on  the  one  hand,  and 
between  Federal  Reserve  Agents  and  the  Treasury 
on  the  other;  both  funds  are  in  the  custody  of  the 
Treasurer  of  the  United  States. 

(12)  To  add  to  the  number  of  cities  classified  as 
reserve  and  central  cities  under  existing  laws  in 
which  National  Banking  Associations  are  subject  to 
the  reserve  requirements  set  forth  in  this  Act, 

(13)  To  authorize  the  opening  by  the  Reserve 
Banks  of  accounts  in  foreign  countries,  the  appoint- 
ment of  correspondents  and  the  establishment  of 
agencies  in  such  countries. 

(14)  To  grant  by  special  permit  to  National 
Banks  applying  therefor,  when  not  in  contravention 
of  state  or  local  law,  the  right  to  act  as  Trustee, 
Executor,  Administrator  or  Registrar  of  stocks  and 
local  bonds  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the 
said  Bureau  may  prescribe. 

(15)  To  issue  regulations  for  the  opening  of  Na- 
tional Banks  in  foreign  countries  or  insular  pos- 
sessions of  the  United  States. 

(c)     By  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 

The  work  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
can  be  divided  as  follows: 

(1)  The  work  for  which  it  was  originally  author- 
ized by  law,  viz.,  the  regulating  of  all  rates  of  charges 


Interstate  Commerce  Commission        261 

of  interstate  commerce  for  passengers  and  merchan- 
dise with  reference  to  common  carriers  (and  certain 
Interstate  steamship  lines  connected  with  railway 
Commerce  companies),  to  telegraph,  telephone  and 
Commis-  cable  companies  (whether  wire  or  wire- 
^^^^'  less).      With  regard  to  these  the  Act 

requires  that  all  rates  and  conditions  of  trans- 
portation shall  be  reasonable,  just  and  non-discrimi- 
natory. 

In  order  that  carriers  may  charge  uniform  rates 
to  all  parties  without  discrimination  they  are  re- 
quired to  file  their  own  rates  with  the  Commission. 
Severe  penalties  are  prescribed  for  failure  to  ob- 
serve these  filed  rates. 

(2)  The  Division  of  Correspondence  and  Claims 
has  received  and  answered  during  the  past  year  ap- 
proximately 50,000  general  inquiries. 

It  is  one  of  the  aims  of  the  Commission  to  assist 
in  obviating  the  necessity  of  formal  complaints  when 
there  is  any  possibility  of  bringing  about  an  ami- 
cable adjustment  by  correspondence.  Thousands  of 
complaints  are  satisfactorily  settled  by  this  expedi- 
tious and  economical  method.  It  has  been  found 
that  many  complaints  can  be  disposed  of  by  simply 
pointing  out  to  the  complainant  the  rights  and  obli- 
gations under  the  law. 

Should,  however,  an  amicable  settlement  not  be 
found  possible,  a  formal  complaint  must  be  filed, 
upon  which  testimony  is  taken  before  the  Commis- 


262  Use  Your  Government 

sion.  It  then  decides  whether  or  not  the  complain- 
ant is  justified.  If  so,  the  carrier  is  informed  to  this 
effect  and  ordered  to  reduce  the  rate  of  charge  and 
make  a  refund  of  any  amount  in  question. 

In  such  cases  complaints  are  filed  in  Washington 
and  investigation  held  in  any  part  of  the  United 
States  most  convenient  to  all  parties  concerned,  the 
attorneys  of  the  Commission  being  sent  to  the  place 
decided  upon. 

(3)  The  Commission  prescribes  the  manner  in 
which  accounts  of  all  railways  and  common  carriers 
are  to  be  kept.  This  Division  was  created  to  carry 
out  the  provision  of  the  Act  which  empowered  the 
Commission  to  prescribe  uniform  accounting  sys- 
tems to  be  adopted  by  the  carriers  subject  to  the  Act 
and  to  employ  examiners  to  inspect  the  accounts, 
records  and  memoranda  of  such  carriers.  For  each 
of  the  several  classes  of  carriers  that  are  subject  to 
the  Act  a  uniform  system  of  accounts  has  been  pre- 
scribed. In  this  provision  is  made  for  the  proper 
accounting  of  every  dollar  of  the  carriers'  receipts 
and  expenditures  and  for  the  classification  of  all 
amounts  received  or  expended.  Such  uniformity  in 
accounting,  it  is  maintained,  is  a  public  necessity 
and  of  value  not  only  to  the  Commission,  but  also 
to  shippers,  investors,  bankers  and  others. 

(4)  Carriers  are  required  to  file  with  the  Commis- 
sion monthly  and  annual  reports  showing  the  earn- 
ings, disbursements  and  other  figures  respecting  the 


Interstate  Commerce  Commission        263 

operations.  This  information  has  been  placed  in  a 
Department  of  Statistics  containing  all  data  regard- 
ing the  financing  of  carriers.  Under  this  heading 
can  be  found  the  earnings  of  carriers,  their  net  in- 
come, their  gross  income,  expenditure,  material 
transported  per  mile,  etc.  This  information  is  of 
special  interest  in  railroad  finance. 

(5)  The  Commission  ascertains  and  reports  the 
value  of  all  the  properties  owned  or  used  by  every 
common  carrier  subject  to  the  Act. 

(6)  The  Commission  is  authorized  to  investigate 
all  railway  accidents  which  result  in  serious  injur- 
ies to  persons  or  property  and  to  make  reports 
thereon  with  suggestions  for  avoiding  the  same  in 
future. 

It  is  also  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  laws 
regarding  the  safety  appliances  on  engines,  cars  and 
freight  conveyances.  In  this  regard  it  inspects  the 
hours  of  service  of  certain  employees  in  order  that 
they  may  not  work  unreasonable  hours  and  lessen 
danger  of  safety  of  passengers. 

(7)  The  Commission  regulates  the  movement,  dis- 
tribution and  exchange  of  cars  with  a  view  to  pre- 
venting a  car  shortage  throughout  the  United 
States. 

The  Bureau  has  one  of  the  best  railway  libraries 
in  the  world,  pertaining  to  all  kinds  of  railway  op- 
erations, regulations,  etc.,  in  this  country  and 
abroad. 


4 
I' 


PAET  IV 
THE  WORKING  MAN 


-\ 


CHAPTER  I.— PURPOSE  OF  THE  DEPART- 
MENT OF  LABOR 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1913,  Congress  approved  of 
the  Act  which  created  the  Department  of  Labor.  Its 
first  section  reads : 

''The  purpose  of  the  Department  of  Labor 
shall  be  to  foster,  promote  and  develop  the  wel- 
fare of  the  wage  earners  of  the  United  States, 
to  improve  their  working  conditions  and  to  ad- 
vance their  opportunities  for  profitable  employ- 
ment. ' ' 

The  Act  shows  no  authority  for  the  development 
of  any  special  privileges  for  wage  earners.  It  is, 
however,  evident  that  Congress  intended  to  look 
after  their  interests  by  means  of  an  Executive  De- 
partment especially  devoted  to  them.  There  is  also 
no  indication  that  the  Department  was  created  only 
for  such  wage  earners  as  associated  together  in 
labor  unions.  It  was  founded  in  the  interests  of  all 
the  workers  of  the  United  States  whether  organized 
or  unorganized. 


267 


CHAPTER  IL— EMPLOYMENT  SERVICE 

Department  The  Employment  Service  of  the 
of  Labor.  United  States  grew  out  of  the  Division 
of  Information  of  the  Department  of  Labor,  origi- 
nally founded  to  give  information  to  landing  immi- 
grants. 

It  has  taken  over  the  labor  requirements  of  the 
country  on  the  farms  (see  page  59),  as  well  as  in 
the  factories,  mines  and  workshops.  The  work  of 
this  Division  was  originally  confined  to  small 
branches  which  have  now  grown  until  every  state 
in  the  Union  has  a  Labor  Employment  Zone  with 
headquarters  at  some  central  place  in  each  state  and 
sub-branches  through  that  state. 

Under  this  system  with  its  zone  in  each  district 
it  is  possible  under  normal  conditions  to  find  a  new 
position  for  a  laborer  within  twenty-four  hours  and 
to  immediately  supply  labor  where  needed. 

The  zones  of  the  Employment  Service  at  the  pres- 
ent time  are  as  follows : 


268 


Zone 

Headquarters 

Sub-branches 

Maine 

Portland 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Boston 

New  Bedford 

Rhode  Island 

Providence 

Connecticut 

Hartford 

Bridgeport 

New  York 

New  York 

Buffalo 

New  Jersey 

Newark 

Jersey  City 
Orange 

Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 

Pittsburgh 

Delaware 

Wilmington 

Maryland 

Baltimore 

District  of  Columbia 

Washington 

Virginia 

Norfolk 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Charleston 

Georgia 

Savannah 

Florida 

Jacksonville 

Miami 
Key  West 
Pensacola 
Tampa 

Alabama 

Mobile 

Mississippi 

Gulfport 

Louisiana 

New  Orleans 

Tennessee 

Memphis 

Arkansas 

Little  Rock 

Ohio 

Cleveland 

Kentucky 

Indiana 

Indianapolis 

Illinois 

Chicago 

Michigan 

Detroit 

Sault  Ste.  Marie 

Wisconsin 

Milwaukee 

Minnesota 

Minneapolis 

North  Dakota 

South  Dakota 

Iowa 

Des  Moines 

Missouri 

(Eastern  District) 

St.  Louis 

(Western  District) 

Kansas  City 

269 


Zone 

Headquarters 

Sub-branches 

Nebraska 

Omaha 

Lincoln 

Kansas 

Oklahoma 

Texas : 

(Southern  District) 

Galveston 

Houston 
Brownsville 
Laredo 
Eagle  Pass 
San  Antonio 
San  Angelo 

(Western  District) 

El  Paso 

Del  Rio 

(Northern  District) 

Fort  Worth 

Big  Spring 
Amarillo 

New  Mexico 

Santa  Fe 

Albuquerque 

Tucumcari 

Deming 

Colorado 

Denver 

Utah 

Salt  Lake  City 

Wyoming 

Cheyenne 

Montana 

Helena 

Idaho 

Moscow 

Washington 

Seattle 

Spokane 

Walla  Walla 

Tacoma 

Aberdeen 

Everett 

Bellingham 

North  Yakima 

Friday  Harbor 

Nocksack 

Lynden 

Custer 

Port  Townsend 

Port  Angeles 

Oregon 

Portland 

Astoria 

California: 

(Northern  District) 

San  Francisco 

Sacramento 
Fresno 
Eureka 
Monterey 

270 


Employment  Service 


271 


Zone 

Headquarters 

Sub-branches 

(Southern  District) 

Los  Angeles 

San  Diego 
Santa  Ana 
Santa  Barbara 
San  Luis  Obispo 
Bakersfield 
San  Bernardino 
Calexico 
Indio 

Nevada 

Reno 

Arizona 

Phoenix 

Tucson 

Douglas 

Naco 

Nogales 

Phoenix 

Yuma 

It  has  been  tlie  policy  of  the  Bureau  to  get  em- 
ployer and  employee  into  personal  touch  with  the 
Service,  as  direct  contact  between  either  of  them  and 
their  Government  is  more  satisfactory  than  inter- 
course through  another  person,  the  workingman 
feeling  that  his  Government  is  taking  a  direct  in- 
terest in  him.  In  giving  the  following  list  of  the 
various  blank  forms  used  by  the  Division  it  is  pos- 
sible to  recognize  the  manner  in  which  the  problem 
is  handled : 

Application  for  Employment.  To  be  used  in  ap- 
plying for  work  by  persons  who  cannot  make  appli- 
cation in  person. 

Application  for  Farm  Hands.  To  be  used  by  em- 
ployers applying  for  help  in  agricultural  work  or 
kindred  occupations. 


272  Use  Your  Government 

Application  for  Laborers.  To  be  used  by  employ- 
ers in  applying  for  laborers  or  men  of  other  occupa- 
tions except  farm  work. 

Application  for  Domestics.  To  be  used  by  em- 
ployers in  applying  for  domestic  servants,  m'le  or 
female. 

Application  for  Settlers.  To  be  used  by  owners 
of  land  desiring  settlers  or  tenants.    (See  page  160.) 

Application  File  Card.  To  be  used  in  registering 
applicants  for  emplojTuent  who  apply  in  person  and 
who  are  directed  to  work,  or  for  those  whom  there  is 
reason  to  believe  may  be  directed  at  an  early  date. 

Identification  Slip.  To  be  fully  filled  out  and 
handed  to  each  applicant  directed  to  employment. 

Letter  of  Direction  {thick  and  thin).  To  be  used 
in  notifying  employer  when  applicants  are  directed 
to  him  for  work.  Form  may  be  used  for  any  num- 
ber of  men  directed  to  the  same  employment  or  like 
work  on  the  same  day.  Thin  sheets  for  file  and 
copy  for  Division  at  Washington. 

Card  Announcement  of  Arrival.  To  be  forward- 
ed with  form  Inf.  8  when  applicants  are  directed. 
Fill  in  date  of  direction,  address  card  to  your  own 
office.  When  returned  note  fact  on  your  record  and 
forward  card  to  Chief  of  Division  at  Washington. 

Transportation  Circular.  To  accompany  all  let- 
ters requesting  an  advance  of  transportation,  also 
forms  Inf.  2  and  3  when  forwarded  to  employers  by 
mail. 


Employment  Service  273 

Receipt  for  Advanced  Transportation.  To  be 
signed  by  each  employee  who  travels  on  advance  of 
transportation,  face  to  be  stamped  at  top  by  trans- 
portation company  and  full  accounting  to  be  made 
of  remittance ;  then  file. 

Copy  of  Receipt  for  Advanced  Transportation. 
To  be  used  for  copies  of  employee's  receipt;  to  be 
signed  in  duplicate  hy  employee,  one  copy  to  be  for- 
warded to  employer  and  one  copy  to  Chief  of  Di- 
vision at  "Washington. 

Brief  of  Active  Opportmiities.  To  be  used  to 
record  active  opportunities  and  all  old  opportunities 
which  have  been  reopened ;  convenient  and  time  sav- 
ing method  of  quick  reference  to  active  opportuni- 
ties. 

Monthly  Report  of  Applicants  for  Information. 
To  be  used  to  record  all  applicants  for  information 
concerning  employment,  by  race  and  trade  or  call- 
ing, the  latter  regardless  of  the  kind  of  work  the  ap- 
plicant seeks  or  will  accept. 

Summary  of  Distribution.  To  be  used  in  making 
monthly  report  of  apphcants  directed  to  definite 
employment. 

Identification  Tag.  To  be  properly  filled  out  and 
placed  on  employees  directed  on  advanced  transpor- 
tation where  applicant  cannot  speak  English. 

Baggage  Tag.  To  be  properly  filled  out  and 
placed  on  baggage  of  all  applicants  directed  on  ad- 
vanced transportation. 


CHAPTEE  III.— INFORMATION  CONCERNING 

LABOR  ISSUED  BY  THE  BUREAU  OF 

LABOR  STATISTICS 

Bureau  of  ^^^  chief  duty  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Labor  Statistics  is  to  publish  information  con- 

Statistics,  cerning  labor  from  every  part  of  the 
world  among  the  people  of  the  United  States;  es- 
pecially in  its  relation  to  capital,  hours  and  earnings 
of  laboring  men  and  women  and  the  means  of  pro- 
moting their  material  and  social  welfare. 

The  Bureau  publishes,  by  means  of  bulletins  or  its 
Monthly  Review,  the  union  scale  of  wages  and  hours 
of  labor  in  various  industries;  the  conciliation  and 
arbitration  work  of  the  Department  of  Labor  and 
other  agencies ;  the  collective  agreements  in  success- 
ful operation  in  well-known  factories  or  industries; 
employment  and  unemployment  in  important  indus- 
tries, and  the  operations  of  Federal,  state  and  mu- 
nicipal employment  offices ;  the  turnover  and  migra- 
tion of  labor  and  the  efforts  of  employment  man- 
agers to  stabilize  it ;  the  employment  of  women  and 
children,  and  protective  legislation  regarding  them ; 
vocational  education;  industrial  accidents  and  acci- 
dent prevention,  and  the  importance  of  a  uniform 

274 


Information  Issued  Concerning  Labor    275 

method  of  reporting;  occupational  disease  and  its 
prevention ;  all  phases  of  social  insurance,  including 
the  publication  of  workmen's  compensation  laws; 
the  cost  of  living,  giving  the  actual  sale  prices, 
wholesale  and  retail,  of  a  large  number  of  com- 
modities in  representative  markets  throughout  the 
country ;  the  labor  laws  of  various  states  and  a  study 
of  their  administration;  the  work  of  state  labor 
Bureaus,  workmen's  compensation  commissions,  and 
minimum  wage  and  arbitration  boards;  court  de- 
cisions affecting  labor;  the  proceedings  of  such  con- 
ventions and  conferences  as  have  to  do  with  labor; 
and  many  other  subjects  related  to  the  work  of  the 
Department  of  which  the  Bureau  forms  a  part. 

The  publication  of  chief  popular  interest  is  the 
Monthly  Review  whose  initial  number  appeared 
in  July,  1915.  This  shows  from  month  to  month  the 
current  work  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Labor  and  other  Government  agencies  dealing  di- 
rectly with  labor  matters. 

The  bulletins  of  the  Bureau,  as  soon  as  published, 
are  concisely  summarized  in  the  Review  and  state- 
ments each  month  show  the  employment  and  concili- 
ation work  done  in  the  Department  of  Labor.  Cur- 
rent statistics  of  immigration,  unemployment,  cost 
of  living,  and  many  other  subjects  are  given.  The 
Monthly  Review  keeps  in  touch  with  the  work  of  the 
various  states,  with  minimum  wage  commissions, 
factory    and    mine    inspection    offices,    arbitration 


276  Use  Your  Government 

boards  and  other  permanent  or  temporary  agencies 
for  investigating  and  reporting  upon  questions  of 
interest  to  labor.  It  also  devotes  space  to  the  work 
of  foreign  official  agencies  and  bureaus,  many  re- 
ports otherwise  inaccessible  being  thus  made  avail- 
able to  the  general  public.  Official  reports  both  do- 
mestic and  foreign  are  reviewed  in  this  publication 
if  they  are  important  and  relate  to  labor. 

Any  publications  of  the  Bureau  may  be  had  with- 
out cost  until  the  supply  is  exhausted,  after  which  a 
nominal  sum  is  charged  to  cover  the  actual  expense 
of  printing  and  paper. 


CHAPTER    IV.— MEDIATION    IN    DISPUTES 

Mediation  ^^^  Secretary  of  Labor  is  empowered 
Service,  to  mediate  in  labor  disputes  and  at  his 
Department  discretion  to  appoint  Commissioners  of 
o  a  or.  Conciliation,  his  authority  coming  from 
the  section  of  the  Organic  Act  of  the  Department 
reading : 

''The  Secretary  of  Labor  shall  have  power 
to  act  as  mediator  and  to  appoint  commission- 
ers of  conciliation  in  labor  disputes  whenever 
in  his  judgment  the  interests  of  industrial  peace 
may  require  it  to  be  done. ' ' 

Primarily  the  Department  of  Labor  must  con- 
serve in  industrial  disputes  the  interests  of  the  wage 
earners  of  the  United  States,  such  being  its  duty  un- 
der the  laws  of  its  creation.  However,  the  policy  of 
the  Department,  though  it  executes  its  mediation 
and  conciliation  functions,  as  the  governmental  rep- 
resentative of  wage-earning  interests,  is  to  do  so 
without  partisanship  or  prejudice,  but  with  fairness 
to  every  interest  concerned. 

Many  strikes  and  disputes  of  first  magnitude 
which  might  have  entailed  serious  loss  to  the  people 
of  the  United  States  have  been  averted  or  adjusted 
during  the  year. 

277 


278  Use  Your  Government 

An  instance  in  point  is  that  of  the  central  Pennsyl- 
vania bituminous  coal  fields  where  a  strike  that 
would  have  tied  up  the  entire  field  was  threatened. 
This  involved  upwards  of  75,000  workers.  As  a 
result  of  the  good  offices  of  the  Department,  the  dis- 
pute was  satisfactorily  adjusted. 

In  the  Southeastern  Eailway  controversy  involv- 
ing over  40,000  mechanics,  electricians,  car  inspec- 
tors, etc.,  employed  on  the  Southern  Railway  sys- 
tems, the  issues  in  dispute  were  settled  amicably. 

A  stoppage  of  work  in  the  coal  fields  of  Alabama, 
in  which  25,000  workers  were  employed,  was  also 
averted  by  the  Department's  efforts. 

Scores  of  trade  disputes  are  handled  by  the  De- 
partment each  month.  The  policy  of  the  concilia- 
tors is  to  secure  adjustments  before  a  stoppage  of 
work  occurs  with  the  consequent  loss  in  production 
to  the  employers  and  in  wages  to  the  workers. 

During  the  past  fiscal  year  the  Department  has 
been  requested  to  use  its  good  offices  in  378  strikes, 
trade  disputes,  lockouts  and  controversies  in  prac- 
tically all  branches  of  manufacturing,  mining  and 
construction  work.  It  has  been  successful  in  settling 
248  of  these,  47  proved  unadjustable,  42  were  pend- 
ing at  the  close  of  the  year,  and  in  the  remainder 
the  Commissioners  of  Conciliation  found  that  the 
matters  in  dispute  had  either  been  arranged  before 
their  arrival,  that  the  employees  affected  had  se- 
cured work  elsewhere,  or  that  state  or  local  officials 


Mediation  in  Labor  Disputes  279 

were  making  progress  towards  satisfactory  adjust- 
ment. The  number  of  workers  affected  directly  in 
these  cases  was  473,739  and  those  indirectly  affected 
334,225. 

Board  of  ^^®  Board  of  Mediation  and  Concilia- 

Mediation  tion  also  assists  in  the  settling  of  dis- 
and  Con-  putes.  It  was  created  by  Act  of  Con- 
ion,  gress  in  July,  1913,  and  is  an  independ- 
ent Government  establishment  not  connected  with 
any  deDartment. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  Board  was  established 
is  to  settle  by  mediation,  conciliation  and  arbitra- 
tion controversies  concerning  wages,  hours  of  labor, 
or  conditions  of  employment  that  may  arise  between 
common  carriers  engaged  in  interstate  transporta- 
tion and  their  employees  engaged  in  train  opera- 
tions or  train  service. 

Any  cases  where  an  interruption  of  traffic  is  im- 
minent and  fraught  with  serious  danger  to  the  pub- 
lic interests  the  Board  may,  if  in  its  judgment  such 
action  seems  desirable,  proffer  its  services  to  the 
respective  parties  of  the  controversy. 

In  their  work  of  mediation  members  of  the  Board 
visit  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  Mediation  of 
controversies  arising  in  what  is  known  in  the  rail- 
way world  as  southeastern  territory,  however,  is  by 
consent  of  the  parties  sometimes  conducted  at  the 
offices  of  the  Board  in  Washington. 

When  a  controversy  such  as  is  mentioned  above 


280  Use  Your  Government 

arises  the  Board  uses  its  best  efforts  by  mediation 
and  conciliation  to  bring  about  an  agreement. 
Should  its  efforts  prove  unsuccessful  the  Board  en- 
deavors to  induce  the  parties  to  submit  their  con- 
troversies to  arbitration. 

In  the  event  of  an  agreement  to  arbitrate  their 
differences  the  parties  to  the  controversy  select  their 
respective  arbitrators  and  the  arbitrators  thus  se- 
lected endeavor  to  agree  upon  the  remaining  arbi- 
trator or  arbitrators  to  complete  the  Arbitration 
Board.  If  it  fails  in  this,  such  remaining  arbitra- 
tors are  selected  by  the  Board  of  Mediation.  Neces- 
sary arrangements  for  conducting  the  arbitration 
are  made  by  the  Board  of  Mediation,  which  also 
pays  all  expenses  of  an  arbitration,  including  quar- 
ters for  holding  the  hearings,  official  reporters,  etc. 
When  practical,  however,  arbitrations  are  held  in  a 
Federal  building  without  cost  to  the  Board. 

During  the  first  year  of  its  existence  the  Board 
amicably  adjusted  some  twenty-eight  controversies, 
involving  directly  some  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
thousand  railroad  employees.  This  average  has  con- 
tinued each  year.  A  single  controversy  may  be 
based  on  from  one  to  fifty  or  sixty  different  ques- 
tions involving  from  a  few  dozen  to  several  thousand 
employees. 


CHAPTER   v.— INVESTIGATIONS   FOR   THE 
SAFETY  AND  HEALTH  OF  MINERS 

Bureau  of  The  primary  work  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines.  Mines  is  to  investigate  the  safety  and 

health  conditions  in  the  mineral  industries  with  a 
view  to  making  recommendations  for  preventing  fa- 
talities and  accidents. 

The  Bureau  investigates  the  causes  of  accidents, 
publishing  the  result  of  the  investigation  with  rec- 
ommendations. In  connection  herewith  the  Bureau 
is  issuing  an  official  list  of  permissible  explosives, 
lamps  and  motors  which  have  passed  the  Bureau's 
official  safety  test  for  the  benefit  of  miners  and  mine 
owners. 

The  Bureau  has  no  right  to  inspect  mines,  these 
being  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  police  in  the  state 
where  the  mines  are  situated.  The  Federal  Govern- 
ment can  only  make  recommendations  and  ask  for 
the  cooperation  of  the  mine  owners  and  miners  with 
a  view  to  ascertaining  how  conditions  can  be  im- 
proved. 

In  this  respect  the  Bureau  is  prepared  to  make  a 
thorough  investigation  of  safety  conditions  at  the 
request  of  any  particular  mine.  A  confidential  re- 
port is  then  sent  to  the  owners  concerning  the  ex- 

281 


282  Use  Your  Government 

act  conditions  that  exist.  In  almost  every  case  it  is 
found  that  the  owners  are  only  too  ready  to  get  the 
opinion  of  disinterested  experts. 

The  Bureau  has  rescue  cars  in  every  mining  dis- 
trict of  the  country.  These  are  equipped  with  crews, 
experts  in  rescue  work  and  first  aid  and  they  are 
called  in  whenever  an  accident  occurs.  While  not 
occupied  in  helping  the  injured  in  case  of  disaster, 
they  act  as  teachers  of  first  aid  and  rescue  work  in 
the  mining  centers.  During  the  past  year  they  have 
been  teaching  the  wives  and  daughter  of  miners 
first  aid,  so  that  gradually  the  whole  population  of 
the  mining  districts  will  be  able  to  assist  when 
needed.  Each  of  these  cars  has  a  mining  engineer, 
who  also  gives  lectures  on  sanitation.  Big  improve- 
ments in  the  houses  of  the  district  have  been  the  re- 
sult, the  conditions  under  which  the  miners  live  gen- 
erally being  somewhat  primitive.  However,  the 
work  that  is  being  done  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines  in 
cooperation  with  the  Public  Health  Service  in  teach- 
ing them  to  take  every  precaution  to  prevent  epi- 
demics has  brought  about  a  great  improvement. 
Public  ^^^  officials  of  the  Bureau  of  Mines,  in 

Health  cooperation  with  the  Public  Health  Ser- 

Service.  vice,  are  organizing  whole  communities 
in  a  fight  against  miners'  consumption,  which  is  so 
tragically  prevalent  in  a  few  mining  districts.  It 
was  found  that  60  per  cent,  of  the  miners  in  one 
metal  mining  industry  showed  injury  to  the  lungs 


iK^' 


Bureau  of  Mines  Rescue  Crew.     Stretcher  Drill. 


Bureau  of  Mines  Rescue  Corps  entering  mine   following  disaster. 


s 


Safety  and  Health  of  Miners  283 

due  to  the  inhalation  of  irritating  dust,  14  per  cent, 
being  also  tubercular. 

A  similar  campaign  is  being  waged  against  ''hook- 
worm," which  is  also  prevalent  in  some  of  the  min- 
ing districts. 

Publications  are  issued  by  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
on  the  subject  of  "Safety."  These  publications  not 
Bureau  of  only  apply  to  miners,  but  to  men  en- 
Mines,  gaged  in  the  various  industries  that  are 
auxiliary  to  mining.  For  instance,  the  Bureau  has 
published  a  number  of  reports  relating  to  the  safety 
of  workers  in  steel  mills,  blast  furnaces,  etc.,  and 
has  issued  general  rules  of  safety  and  sanitation 
that  are  applicable  to  all  industrial  workers.  A 
pamphlet  containing  special  rules  on  "first  aid  to 
the  injured"  has  also  been  published  for  the  benefit 
of  the  miners  and  their  wives. 


CHAPTER  VT.— INVESTIGATIONS  RELATIVE 
TO  OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES  AND  IN- 
DUSTRIAL HYGIENE 

Public  The  Public  Health  Service  makes  in- 

Health  vestigations  relative  to  occupational  dis- 

service, eases  and  industrial  hygiene.  Investiga- 
tions relative  to  this  work  are  to  a  great  extent  of 
a  scientific  nature,  research  work  being  carried  on  in 
the  Pittsburgh  Industrial  Laboratory. 

The  result  of  these  investigations  and  experi- 
ments, with  recommendations,  are  printed  in  bulle- 
tins given  to  the  owners  of  industrial  concerns  or 
those  responsible,  who  in  most  cases  are  ready  to  act 
on  the  suggestions  for  the  benefit  of  workers  made 
therein. 

The  Service  makes  surveys,  visiting  the  stores, 
factories,  workshops,  etc.,  to  investigate  sanitary 
conditions,  ventilation,  illumination,  hours  of  work, 
etc.,  and  improvements  drawn  up  by  the  Service. 


284 


CHAPTER  VII.— COMMUNITY 
ORGANIZATION 

A  Division  for  ''Community  Organization"  was 
established  under  the  Bureau  of  Education  on  the 
Bureau  of  1st  of  January,  1916,  to  furaish  expert 
Education,  assistance  in  developing  the  use  of  pub- 
lic school  houses  as  community  centers — neighbor- 
hood headquarters  of  civic,  cultural,  recreational 
and  economic  cooperation  of  adults  and  older  youth. 

The  work  of  the  division  may  be  said  to  fall  under 
the  following  headings : 

The  Promotion  of  General  Interest.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  division  since  its  foundation  have  pre- 
sented its  principles  before  162  general  audiences  in 
as  many  communities  and  before  26  conferences,  as- 
semblies of  educational  and  social  workers.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  they  have  participated  in  forming  two 
auxiliary  private  associations  to  supplement  its 
work — the  National  Community  Center  Association, 
whose  aim  is  to  help  in  general  promotion,  and  the 
Community  Organization  Board,  whose  function  is 
to  furnish  temporary  financial  aid  for  demonstration 
where  the  economy  of  public  appropriation  for  com- 
munity center  development  is  not  yet  appreciated. 

Recommendation  of  Necessary  Legislation.     At 

285 


286  Use  Your  Government 

the  request  of  officials,  individuals  and  associations 
in  various  states,  a  summary  of  existing  legislation 
relating  to  the  wider  use  of  public  school  property 
was  made,  and  a  model  bill  drawn  to  make  provi- 
sion in  consistent  fashion  for  community  center  de- 
velopment. This,  with  an  explanatory  brief,  was 
sent  to  Governors,  State  Superintendents  of  public 
instruction  and  chairmen  of  Senate  and  House  com- 
mittees on  education  of  the  several  states  in  which 
legislative  sessions  occurred  within  the  year.  Thir- 
ty states  have  thus  far  enacted  laws  looking  to  the 
increased  community  use  of  the  public  school  equip- 
ment. 

Direct  Aid  in  Community  Center  Development.  In 
order  to  furnish  a  national  demonstration  of  the 
possibilities  of  community  center  development,  the 
division  has  cooperated  with  local  agencies  in  sys- 
tematically inaugurating  this  development  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Through  its  cooperation  a  be- 
ginning has  been  made  of  the  use  of  the  public 
school  house  as  the  polling  place,  the  community 
forum,  and  the  recreation  center  of  each  local  neigh- 
borhood, and  the  office  of  general  secretary  of  com- 
munity centers  has  been  established  to  coordinate 
the  work  throughout  the  District.  At  present  the 
division  is  aiding  in  the  experimental  establish- 
ment of  community  trading  with  the  school  house 
as  headquarters,  on  the  plan  worked  out  success- 
fully in  connection  with  the  United  States  public 


Community  Organization  287 

schools  in  Alaska.  Another  interesting  direct  serv- 
ice of  the  division  has  been  its  founding  a  National 
Motion  Picture  Film  Exchange,  collecting  the  films 
available  in  the  various  departments  and  furnishing 
them  for  free  use  in  community  centers. 


CHAPTER  Vm.— SUPERVISION  OF  SEA- 
MEN'S CONTRACTS 

The  Bureau  of  Navigation  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  supervises  the  labor  contracts  entered 
Depart-  into  by  the  seamen  on  merchant  vessels 
ment  of  engaging  in  foreign  trade.  This  super- 
Commerce,  vision  is  to  prevent  frauds  upon  seamen, 
to  prevent  their  being  left  stranded  in  foreign  ports 
and  to  enable  them  to  know  in  advance  just  what 
work  they  have  agreed  to  perform,  the  course  and 
duration  of  the  voyage,  the  fare  they  are  to  receive 
on  board  and  their  pay.  These  contracts  are  made 
in  writing  on  printed  government  forms  and  are 
signed  by  a  Shipping  Commissioner  or  Collector  of 
Customs  as  a  representative  of  the  Government. 
When  the  contract  has  been  performed  and  the  voy- 
age ended  the  seamen  are  paid  off  and  discharged 
before  the  Shipping  Commissioner. 


288 


PART  V 
THE  IMMIGRANT 


CHAPTER  I.— CARE  DURING  POSSIBLE  DE- 
TENTION AT  IMMIGRATION  STATIONS 

Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Immigration   of  the 

Immi-  Department  of  Labor  is  concerned  with 

gration.  ^]j  matters  relating  to  the  execution  of 

the  Immigration  Laws. 

One  of  its  chief  duties  is  the  care  of  the  immi- 
grants seeking  admission  to  the  United  States.  The 
arriving  immigrants  are  examined  and  those  tem- 
porarily detained  are  cared  for  at  a  series  of  large 
and  well-equipped  Immigrant  Stations  located  at  the 
ports  of  entry  on  the  seacoast  and  places  of  ingress 
on  the  land  boundaries. 

The  largest  Immigration  Station  is  at  the  Port  of 
New  York  and  is  situated  upon  Ellis  Island.  The 
term  "Ellis  Island"  comprehends  a  group  of  thirty- 
odd  buildings,  of  the  safest  and  most  sanitary  type 
which  engineers  have  been  able  to  develop.  As  far 
as  possible  every  reasonable  comfort  and  conveni- 
ence is  provided  for  these  temporary  wards  of  the 
Government,  large  and  well-aired  detention  rooms 
being  set  aside  for  them.  An  up-to-date  hospital 
with  every  modern  equipment  is  available  for  those 
who  are  sick.    For  children  or  adults  there  is  also  a 

291 


292  Use  Your  Government 

contagious  disease  hospital,  with  a  special  staff  of 
officers  from  the  Public  Health  Service  detailed  to 
this  Immigration  Station.  Those  suffering  from 
temporary  curable  illnesses,  which,  however,  forbid 
their  entry  into  the  United  States,  are  treated  or  op- 
erated at  the  Immigration  Station  Hospital. 

Similar  stations  on  a  smaller  scale  are  maintained 
at  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Seattle  and  Honolulu,  and  new  stations  are  in 
prepartion  at  the  ports  of  Boston  and  Baltimore. 

The  handling  of  normal  immigration  before  the 
European  war  involved  the  welfare  of  approximate- 
ly 2,000,000  persons  a  year. 

The  new  Immigration  Law,  which  became  effect- 
ive on  May  1, 1917,  makes  transportation  companies 
largely  responsible  for  the  character  and  fitness  of 
intending  immigrants.  By  a  system  of  administra- 
tive fines  the  importation  of  persons  morally  dan- 
gerous, mentally  disqualified,  or  having  contagious 
diseases  is  prohibited.  This  is  a  law  of  vast  im- 
portance considering  that  up  to  the  present  time 
many  European  ticket  agencies  were  merely  inter- 
ested in  selling  transportation  to  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  immigrants  in  this  country  without  any  in- 
quiry as  to  whether  these  persons  would,  or  would 
not,  be  allowed  to  land.  Under  this  new  law  immi- 
grants refused  landing  are  refunded  the  cost  of 
their  passage.    If  a  bond  must  be  given  while  wait- 


Care  of  Immigrants  During  Detention    293 

ing  for  deportation,  the  alien  may  deposit  cash  at 
the  post-office  and  draw  interest  thereon  instead  of 
being  compelled  to  pay  heavy  premiums  for  surety 
bonds. 


CHAPTER   II.— HELPING    THE    IMMIGRANT 
GET  EMPLOYMENT 

The  Division  of  Information  of  the  Department  of 
Labor  is  at  the  disposal  of  the  immigrant  in  looking 
Division  of  for  employment.  The  Act  under  which 
Informa-  ^y^q  Division  of  Information  was  found- 
^°^'  ed  was  worded  to  the  effect  that  it  was 

to  gather  information  from  all  available  sources  con- 
cerning conditions  in  the  labor  field,  publish  same  in 
various  languages  and  distribute  the  information  to 
the  immigrants  at  the  various  landing  places,  if  re- 
quested so  to  do. 

However,  information  might  also  be  given  to 
''others"  who  might  ask  for  it,  which  gave  the  Di- 
vision the  right  to  deal  with  all  kinds  of  labor,  and 
this  formed  the  basis  of  the  general  employment  ser- 
vice.    (See  page  268.) 

The  beginning  of  the  work  was  to  gather  infor- 
mation concerning  labor  and  give  it  to  those  landing 
in  the  United  States.  It  was  found,  however,  that 
the  bewildered  immigrant  in  his  unaccustomed  new 
surroundings  had  but  little  use  for  these  pamphlets 
of  information  thrust  into  his  hand.  The  establish- 
ment of  branch  offices  of  the  service  at  each  landing 

294 


Helping  Immigrants  Get  Employment    295 

port  was  then  agreed  upon  as  being  infinitely  more 
practical.  To  these  branch  offices  the  immigrants 
were  told  they  might  come  for  advice  and  help  after 
their  release  from  the  Immigration  Stations.  In- 
stead of  leaflets  relating  to  information  on  labor 
gathered  by  the  Department,  the  immigrants  were 
simply  given  leaflets  with  an  address  to  which  they 
might  apply  in  case  of  any  difficulty  presenting  it- 
self to  them.  At  the  Government  employment  of- 
fices which  are  in  touch  with  labor  conditions  all 
over  the  country  (see  page  269),  the  immigrant  is 
given  advice  and  assisted  in  obtaining  suitable  em- 
ployment. Interpreters  are  at  his  disposal  and  a 
complete  system  has  been  organized  to  insure  the 
immigrant  reaching  his  place  of  employment,  should 
this  be  in  the  city  where  he  finds  himself,  or  out  of 
that  city,  no  matter  what  the  distance  may  be. 


CHAPTER    III.— TEACHING    IMMIGRANTS 
CITIZENSHIP  AND  ENGLISH 

A  Naturalization  Bureau  was  created  under  the 
Act  establishing  a  Department  of  Labor.  In  the 
Bureau  of  fii"st  instance,  its  duties  are  to  super- 
Naturali-  vise  the  enforcement  of  the  Naturaliza- 
zation.  i^JQ-^  Laws.  These,  broadly  speaking,  ad- 

mit to  American  citizenship  aliens  under  the  follow- 
ing conditions: 

(a)  A  five  years'  continuous  residence  in  the 
United  States,  when  holding  a  declaration  of  inten- 
tion to  become  a  citizen  at  that  time,  which  is  dated 
two  years  back. 

(b)  A  good  moral  character. 

(c)  Ability  to  write,  and  also  to  speak  English. 
In  its  administration  of  the  Naturalization  Laws 

the  Bureau  cooperates  with  the  public  school  au- 
thorities throughout  the  United  States  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  immigrants  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment  into  contact  with  the  Americanizing  influ- 
ences of  the  public  school  system  and  teaching  them 
the  principles  of  citizenship. 

The  Bureau,  however,  is  interested  only  in  those 
aliens  who  have  declared  their  intentions  to  become 

296 


Teaching  Immigrants  Citizenship  and  English  297 

citizens  of  the  United  States  and  who  have  of  their 
own  free  will  taken  steps  towards  this  goal. 

The  first  effort  made  to  bring  the  alien  into  con- 
tact with  the  public  schools  is  to  send  him  a  per- 
sonal letter,  and  if  he  has  a  wife  to  her  also,  reading 
as  follows : 

''Dear  Sir: 

*'Yon  have  taken  steps  to  become  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States ;  therefore,  the  United  States 
Government  is  especially  interested  in  your  wel- 
fare and  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Natural- 
ization is  sending  this  letter  to  you,  as  it  desires 
to  show  you  how  you  can  become  an  American 
citizen.  It  also  wants  to  help  you  get  a  better 
position  that  pays  you  more  money  for  your 
work.  In  order  to  help  you  to  learn  of  the  many 
advantages  which  will  come  to  you  from  being 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  to  help  you 
better  yourself,  it  has  sent  your  name  to  the 
public  schools  in  your  city,  and  the  superin- 
tendent of  these  schools  has  promised  to  teach 
you  the  things  which  you  should  know  to  help 
you  get  a  better  position.  If  you  will  go  to  the 
public-school  building  nearest  where  you  live, 
the  teacher  will  tell  you  what  nights  you  can 
go  to  school  and  the  best  school  for  you  to  go  to. 
You  will  not  be  put  in  a  class  with  boys  and 
girls,  but  with  grown  people.  The  teaching 
which  you  will  receive  in  the  school  will  help 
you  get  a  better  job  and  also  make  you  able  to 
pass  the  examination  in  court  when  you  come 
to  get  your  citizen's  papers. 


298  Use  Your  Government 

''You  should  call  at  the  schoolhouse  as  soon 
as  you  receive  this  letter,  so  that  you  may  start 
to  learn  and  be  able  to  get  a  better  job  as  soon 
as  possible. 

''Very  truly  yours, 

"Commissioner  of  Naturalization." 


and, 


"Dear  Madam: 

"Your  husband  has  taken  steps  to  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States;  therefore  the 
United  States  Government  is  especially  inter- 
ested in  your  welfare  and  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Naturalization  is  sending  you  this  let- 
ter, as  you  will  also  become  an  American  citi- 
zen when  your  husband  gets  his  full  citizen- 
ship. In  order  that  you  may  learn  of  the  many 
advantages  which  will  come  to  you  from  being 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  the  Bureau  of 
Naturalization  has  sent  your  name  and  your 
husband's  name  to  the  public  schools  in  your 
city,  and  the  superintendent  of  these  schools 
has  promised  to  teach  you  the  things  which  you 
should  know  to  help  you  in  these  matters. 

"If  you  will  go  to  the  public-school  building 
nearest  where  you  live,  the  teacher  will  tell 
you  what  nights  you  can  go  to  school  and  the 
best  school  for  you  to  attend.  You  will  not  be 
put  in  a  class  with  boys  and  girls,  but  with 
grown  people.  The  teaching  which  you  will  re- 
ceive in  the  school  will  make  you  able  to  have  an 
American  home,  to  help  your  husband  in  becom- 
ing an  American  citizen  and  your  family  to  live 
as  Americans  hve. 


Teaching  Immigrants  Citizenship  and  English  299' 

''You  and  your  husband  should  call  at  the 
schoolhouse  at  once,  so  that  you  may  both  start 
to  learn  these  things  as  soon  as  possible. 
''Very  truly  yours, 

"Commissioner  of  Naturalization." 

These  classes  were  originally  held  for  the  benefit 
of  immigrants  who  had  applied  for  naturalization 
but  whose  application  had  been  refused. 

The  names  are  obtained  from  the  2,350  courts  all 
over  the  United  States  where  aliens  wishing  to  be- 
come naturalized  citizens  may  register,  a  copy  of 
each  of  these  declarations  being  sent  through  the 
Naturalization  Bureau  in  Washington,  giving  the 
names  of  aliens,  age,  etc.,  and  all  details  as  to  their 
families. 

The  Bureau  also  sends  each  month  to  the  local 
school  authorities  a  card  which  gives  the  name,  age, 
residence,  occupation  and  nationality  of  each  declar- 
ant for  citizenship  within  the  jurisdiction  of  that 
school  during  that  month.  On  this  card  the  date  of 
the  declaration  of  intention  is  written,  and  on  the 
same  card  are  blanks  prepared  for  filling  out  by  the 
school  authorities,  the  cards  to  be  forwarded  to  the 
Bureau  after  they  are  filled  out.  These  reports  show 
the  attendance  of  the  alien  at  school,  his  degree  of 
literacy  in  his  native  tongue  and  English  and  the  ex- 
tent of  his  previous  education.  When  the  reports 
have  been  tabulated  by  the  Bureau  they  are  returned 
to  the  respective  schools.    In  this  connection  the  Bu- 


300  Use  Your  Government 

reau  has  drawn  up  ''An  Outline  Course  in  Citizen- 
ship," to  be  used  in  the  public  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  foreign  and  native  bom  candidates 
for  adult  citizenship  responsibilities. 

The  influence  of  this  cooperation  between  the 
Bureau  on  the  part  of  the  Federal  Government  and 
the  public  schools,  representing  the  state  govern- 
ments, has  been  found  in  legislative  enactments  in 
various  states.  Such  local  organizations  are  work- 
ing with  the  Bureau  by  going  into  the  homes  of  the 
candidate  for  citizenship  to  aid  in  his  education  and 
make  it  possible  to  give  the  immigrant  an  idea  of 
the  American  home.  Up  to  the  present  1,754  towns 
and  cities  are  cooperating  with  the  Bureau  of  Nat- 
uralization through  the  public  schools. 
Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Education  is  also  in- 
Education.  terested  in  the  Americanization  of  the 
Immigrant. 

The  work  done  for  the  immigrant  by  the  Bureau 
of  Education  in  cooperation  with  private  individuals 
is  for  the  purpose  of : 

(a)  Promoting  national,  state  and  city  interest 
toward  the  Americanization  and  education  of  the 
immigrant. 

(b)  Acting  as  a  clearing  house  of  information  of 
all  phases  of  the  Americanization  of  the  immigrant 
through  education. 

(c)  Assisting  and  facilitating  organization  and 


Teaching  Immigrants  Citizenship  and  English  801 

administration  of  public  evening  schools  all  over  the 
country. 

(d)  Facilitating  instruction  by  providing  all  au- 
thorities and  agencies  interested  with  standard  ma- 
terial, i.e.  courses,  text-books  and  methods. 

(e)  Extending  educational  facilities  for  Ameri- 
canization in  factories  and  private  organizations 
and  public  institutions  and  into  the  homes  of  the 
immigrants. 

(f )  Mobilizing  all  the  forces  interested,  including 
industrial  concerns,  private  organizations  and  pa- 
triotic individuals  in  the  movement  of  the  American- 
ization of  the  immigrants. 

In  the  year  1914  investigations  were  made  con- 
cerning facilities  for  the  education  of  immigrants  by 
the  Bureau  of  Education. 

The  next  step  was  the  distribution  of  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  ** America  First" 
posters,  printed  in  English  and  seven  foreign  lan- 
guages, inviting  foreigners  to  learn  English  by  at- 
tending night  schools.  They  were  requested  to  write 
the  Bureau  of  Education  if  there  was  no  night  school 
for  them  in  their  city  or  town.  This  poster  was  sent 
to  all  cities  and  county  superintendents  of  schools, 
to  the  principal  post-office,  industrial  establish- 
ments, educational  periodicals  and  magazines  and  to 
organizations  and  individuals  interested  in  the  sub- 
ject. This  distribution  of  posters  brought  large 
numbers  of  letters  from  all  kinds  of  individuals,  in- 


302  Use  Your  Government 

dustrial  plants  and  institutions  asking  for  sugges- 
tions in  conducting  classes,  for  text-books,  etc.,  as 
well  as  petitions  signed  by  large  numbers  of  for- 
eigners for  the  establishment  of  evening  school  fa- 
cilities, which  were  passed  on  to  the  proper  school 
authorities  with  suggestions  and  advice. 

A  bulletin  entitled  "Standards  and  Methods  in 
the  Education  of  Immigrants"  was  drawn  up  and 
issued  for  the  benefit  of  all  those  concerned  with  this 
subject. 

As  in  the  case  of  all  divisions  of  the  Bureau  of 
Education,  this  division  is  used  as  a  clearing  house 
of  information  concerning  methods  of  educating  the 
immigrant  used  all  over  the  country. 

A  large  quantity  of  printed  matter,  charts,  dia- 
grams, photographs,  in  regard  to  the  inability  of 
the  foreigner  to  speak  English,  total  illiteracy, 
school  attendance  and  factory  classes  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  Bureau  of  Education  for  display.  A 
set  of  lantern  slides  has  also  been  prepared  showing 
letters  from  immigrants,  diagrams,  statistics,  etc. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant publications  pertaining  to  immigrant  education 
that  are  available  at  the  Bureau : 

** Public  Facilities  for  Educating  the  Alien" 
**How  to  Advertise  Night  Schools" 
''How  Chambers  of  Commerce  Can  Cooper- 
ate" 
"What  Women's  Organizations  Can  Do" 


Teaching  Immigrants  Citizenship  and  English  303 

**How  to  Organize  an  Evening  Scliool  for 
Foreigners" 

''How  Industries   Can  Cooperate" 
"How  Libraries  Can  Cooperate" 
*'How    Foreign-Language    Newspapers    Can 
Cooperate" 

"What  Some  Members  of  the  Committee  of 
One  Hundred  Have  Done" 

"How  Labor  Unions  Can  Cooperate" 
"How  Sectarian  Organizations  Can  Cooper- 
ate" 

"How  Patriotic  Societies  Can  Cooperate" 
"How   Young  Women's   Christian   Associa- 
tions Can  Cooperate" 

"A  Call  to  National  Service" 
"Recent  Activities  of  the  Division  of  Immi- 
granit  Education" 

"Women's  Work  for  Women's  Clubs" 
"Course   in   Elementary   Civics    for   Immi- 
grants ' ' 

A  bulletin  has  been  prepared  giving  a  complete 
bibliography  of  all  texts  and  courses  now  being  used 
in  teaching  English  to  immigrants. 

This  Division  cooperates  with  organizations  and 
institutions  interested  in  its  work  by  formulating 
programs  and  sending  printed  matter  by  corre- 
spondence and  personal  interviews. 

Surveys  are  made  by  the  officers  of  the  Division 
in  cities  and  towns,  at  the  request  of  those  in  charge, 
to  lay  a  plan  of  what  is  needed  in  that  particular 
vicinity  for  the  education  of  the  foreign  element. 


304  Use  Your  Government 

The  question  of  school  facihties  in  industrial 
plants  has  been  investigated  generally  and  sug- 
gestions formulated.  The  plants  are  responding  to 
these  plans  in  a  manner  that  is  satisfactory  and 
classes  are  being  established  all  over  the  country. 

On  request  the  Bureau  will  send  to  industrial 
plants  employing  large  numbers  of  foreigners  a  rep- 
resentative to  make  a  survey  of  the  conditions  of  the 
problems  confronting  the  employer  and  employee. 
The  proper  educational  facilities  to  meet  the  needs 
of  each  industrial  concern  are  recommended  and  the 
local  school  authorities  are  asked  to  cooperate  in 
every  possible  way. 

The  amount  of  interest  stirred  up  by  the  work 
for  immigrants  was  so  great  that  the  Bureau  of 
Education  found  itself  without  either  sufficient 
funds  or  staff  to  cope  with  the  situation.  It  there- 
fore appointed  the  ''National  Committee  of  One 
Hundred"  to  assist  in  this  work.  The  members  of 
this  committee  were  selected  from  divers  activities 
of  national  life  and  represent  the  principal  agencies, 
public  and  private,  engaged  in  dealing  with  the  edu- 
cation and  welfare  of  the  immigrant  and  all  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  alien  population  is  large. 

The  functions  of  the  National  Committee  of  One 
Hundred  are  to  sit  with  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation as  an  advisory  council  in  matters  pertaining 
to  Americanization  through  education,  to  assist  in 
conducting  "America  First"  campaigns  and  to  pro- 


Teaching  Immigrants  Citizenship  and  English  305 

mote  the  development  of  co-ordinated  national, 
state  and  city  policies  in  Americanization. 

Each  year,  therefore,  the  Bureau  cooperates  in 
the  conducting  of  a  nationwide  ''America  First" 
campaign.  This  is  directed  toward  stimulating  the 
English  language  and  a  genuine  allegiance  to  the 
United  States.  The  campaign  begins  about  Sep- 
tember 1st,  just  prior  to  the  opening  of  night 
schools,  and  lasts  about  six  months.  The  campaign 
owed  its  name  to  the  ''America  First"  posters  orig- 
inally published  for  the  Americanization  of  aliens. 
It  is  made  effective  through  publicity  regarding 
night  school  facilities  in  foreign  languages  and  is  a 
specialized  feature  of  the  broader  work  of  the  Bu- 
reau, enlisting  the  specific  activities  of  thousands 
of  individuals  and  organized  bodies. 

A  sub-committee  embracing  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  legislation  was  appointed.  This  suggests 
bills  for  Federal  aid,  embracing  Bureau  appropri- 
ations and  state  Americanization  enactments. 

The  Committee  of  One  Hundred,  through  its  co- 
operative agencies, — ^namely,  industrial  establish- 
ments and  chambers  of  commerce,  civic  institutions, 
patriotic  societies,  etc., — looks  into  the  question  of 
the  life  of  the  immigrant  with  a  view  to  seeking 
methods  for  the  improvement  of  his  social  surround- 
ings, his  religious  and  spiritual  welfare  and  the  san- 
itary conditions  of  his  home.  In  connection  there- 
with the  Division  advises  employers  of  large  num- 


306  Use  Your  Government 

bers  of  foreign  laborers,  how  to  reduce  their  labor 
turnover,  accidents,  etc.,  by  the  improvement  of  the 
above  conditions,  and  by  teaching  English,  which 
also  greatly  reduces  industrial  difficulties  through 
the  fact  that  the  workman  is  able  to  make  himself 
understood  in  discussions  with  his  foreman. 


'A 


PART  VI 
THE  NEGRO 


1 


CHAPTER  I.— STATISTICS  AND  DETAILED 

REPORT  CONCERNING  THE  EDUCATION 

OF  THE  NEGRO  IN  ALL  PARTS  OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES 

Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Education  has  this 
Education,  year  computed  what  is  perhaps  the  most 
constructive  piece  of  work  ever  undertaken  for  the 
benefit  of  the  negro  race. 

To  bring  aid  to  the  problem  of  educating' 
10,000,000  negroes  required  that  actual  conditions 
be  understood.  Practically  no  statistics  were  avail- 
able. It  was  therefore  necessary  to  gather  exact 
data  before  suggestions  for  handling  this  question 
could  be  made.  After  three  years  of  first-hand  inves- 
tigation, involving  personal  visits  to  over  800 
schools,  the  Bureau  of  Education  was  able  to  present 
facts  which  transferred  the  problem  of  negro  educa- 
tion from  one  based  on  ''guesswork"  to  one  of  sci- 
ence. 

The  report  is  in  two  volumes,  abundantly  illus- 
trated with  pictures  of  school  activities  and  charts. 

The  first  volume  contains  general  discussions  of 
the  various  phases  of  negro  education.  The  eco- 
nomic, industrial  and  social  conditions  of  the  negro 

309 


310  Use  Your  Government 

are  presented  and  discussed  as  a  measure  of  the 
educational  needs  and  the  extent  to  which  they  have 
to  be  met.  The  historical  background  of  the  educa- 
tion of  the  negro  is  carefully  presented  in  order 
that  there  may  be  no  misunderstanding  of  the  les- 
sons that  have  gone  before.  The  work  of  the  de- 
nominations, boards  and  foundations  and  other 
agencies  interested  in  the  negro  is  described  in  de- 
tail. Complete  lists  of  the  schools  visited  are  given, 
with  the  necessary  data  as  to  teachers,  attendance 
and  financial  support. 

The  second  volume  contains  individual  description 
of  all  the  private  and  higher  schools  for  negroes, 
grouped  geographically  and  in  such  a  way  that  the 
schools  can  be  judged  in  direct  relation  to  the  task 
imposed  upon  them  by  community  demands.  For 
each  state  in  which  the  negro  forms  a  considerable 
part  of  the  population,  detailed  information  is  pro- 
vided, and  the  state's  provision  for  white  and  colored 
children  is  critically  analyzed.  Each  state  is  treated 
on  its  merits :  where  it  endeavors  to  make  adequate 
provision  for  the  education  of  the  colored  people 
within  its  borders,  the  facts  are  so  recorded ;  where 
it  is  a  question  of  unfairness  and  neglect,  the  facts 
are  likewise  presented.  For  each  state,  on  the  basis 
of  the  recorded  findings,  definite  recommendations 
are  made  and  a  program  of  work  on  behalf  of  col- 
ored schools  outlined.  Similarly  for  each  school: 
the  individual  school  sketch,  ranging  in  length  from 


Report  on  Negro  Education  311 

a  few  lines  to  several  pages,  according  to  the  size 
or  importance  of  the  school,  is  regularly  accompan- 
ied by  a  statement  of  recommendations  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  conditions  as  revealed. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  negro  educa- 
tion has  been  the  private  school  with  its  representa- 
tives begging  for  funds  wherever  well  disposed 
white  people  could  be  found  to  listen.  The  Bureau 
of  Education  has  been  constantly  asked  for  reliable 
information  regarding  these  schools,  as  to  their  hon- 
esty, class  of  work,  etc.,  without  being  able  to  give 
reliable  information.  This  is  now  made  possible  by 
the  Bureau's  report. 

The  Bureau's  study  has  shown  that  a  great  mass 
of  schools  are  neither  frauds  nor  high-class  universi- 
ties, but  struggling  institutions  needing  aid  and 
counsel  in  their  gigantic  task  of  introducing  to  civili- 
zation a  race  of  10,000,000  but  50  years  from  slav- 
ery. Such  aid  and  counsel  the  Bureau  of  Education 
is  now  able  to  give. 

The  need  for  agricultural  and  industrial  training 
for  the  negro  is  clearly  shown,  but  the  report  finds 
that  the  negro  requires,  as  perhaps  no  other  part  of 
our  population,  the  wise  leadership  obtained  from 
college  and  professional  training.  The  Bureau  is, 
therefore,  urging  upon  all  schools  that  gardening  be 
introduced,  and  that  trade  and  industrial  training, 
especially  in  agriculture,  be  provided  in  increasing 


312  Use  Your  Government 

measure ;  but  that  professional  training  of  the  high- 
est type  also  be  insisted  upon,  that  the  race  may 
have  ''medical  schools  that  will  prepare  health  lead- 
ers for  the  race;  law  schools  that  will  train  men 
whose  ideas  for  their  race  are  above  those  now  en- 
gaged in  the  practise  of  law ;  theological  institutions 
that  will  supply  wise  and  well-trained  leaders  for  a 
race  whose  emotional  nature  demands  the  highest 
type  of  spiritual  guidance." 

Above  all,  the  Bureau  finds,  the  negro  needs  more 
and  better  education  in  the  fundamentals;  better 
trained  teachers,  longer  school  terms,  more  adequate 
schoolhouses  and  grounds,  and,  in  general,  financial 
provision  for  colored  public  schools  that  is  more 
nearly  in  accord  with  the  money  the  colored  citizens 
pay,  directly  and  indirectly,  into  the  public  treasury, 
and  the  importance  of  his  children  and  his  children's 
children  to  the  welfare  of  the  state  and  of  the  na- 
tion. 

It  is  to  this  task  of  bettering  all  the  educational 
facilities  for  negroes  that  the  Bureau  of  Education 
is  at  present  directing  its  energies.  The  spirit  be- 
hind the  Bureau's  work  for  colored  schools  is  best 
read  in  the  following  words  from  the  report  on  Ne- 
gro Education: 

"Never  was  greater  opportunity  for  service 
offered  to  any  nation  than  that  presented  by 
the  need  of  the  American  negro  for  an  educa- 
tion that  will  fit  him  to  undertake  the  respon- 


Picture  of  the  Bureau   of   Education   slinwing'  coioreil   youths   learning 
to  master  germs  that  menanee  the  health  of  their  race. 


Two  colored  children  receiving  instruction  in  the  Household  Arts. 


Report  on  Negro  Education  313 

sibilities  of  life  in  the  twentieth  centnry.  Never 
was  there  a  more  searching  test  of  democratic 
ideals  than  the  present  necessity  of  a  wise  ad- 
justment of  the  hopes  and  aspirations  of 
10,000,000  black  people  and  the  standards  and 
principles  of  the  90,000,000  white  people  of  the 
United  States. 

''Democracy's  plan  for  the  solution  of  the 
race  problem  in  the  Southland  is  not  primarily 
in  the  philanthropies  and  wisdom  of  Northern 
people ;  nor  is  it  in  the  desires  and  struggles  of 
the  colored  people;  nor  yet  in  the  first-hand 
knowledge  and  daily  contacts  of  the  Southern 
white  people.  Democracy's  plan  is  in  the  com- 
bination of  the  best  thought  and  the  deepest 
sympathy  and  the  most  abiding  faith  of  these 
three  groups  working  with  mutual  faith  in  one 
another. ' ' 

Evidence  of  the  constructive  result  of  these  stud- 
ies is  shown  in  the  changes  which  a  number  of 
schools  have  already  made  as  a  result  of  the  sug- 
gestions of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  Some  of  the 
schools  have  modified  their  courses  of  study  to  suit 
their  incomes  and  the  needs  of  the  pupils,  others 
have  installed  good  systems  of  records  and  cost  ac- 
counting. Plans  have  been  adopted  by  a  number  of 
schools  to  emphasize  cleanliness  and  order  in  the 
dormitories,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  pupils' 
appreciation  of  these  qualities  in  their  home  life. 
Many  institutions  have  for  the  first  time  understood 
the  importance  of  school  gardening,  trained  teach- 


314  Use  Your  Government 

ers,  and  well  considered  plans  for  the  buildings  and 
grounds;  and,  in  general,  the  colored  schools  show 
improvements  consummated  in  a  few  months  that 
would  undoubtedly  have  not  been  possible  in  years. 


A  typical  negro  house. 


iiiii:.!iii!!i!i;iiMi 


What  a  coat  of  paint  under  the  direction  of  tlie  Demonstration  Agent 

will  do. 


CHAPTER  IL— ASSISTANCE  GIVEN  TO  THE 

NEGRO  FARMER 

Almost  from  the  very  beginning  of  the  demon- 
stration work  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
States  negro  farmer  who  has  always  had  access 

Relations  to  all  the  services  of  the  Department  of 
Service.  Agriculture.  Quite  a  number  of  negro 
demonstrators  and  cooperators  were  listed  with 
white  agents,  especially  in  the  thickly  settled  negro 
districts.  Frequently  when  white  demonstrators 
were  named  the  actual  instruction  given  on  their 
farms  was  to  negro  tenants.  Sometimes  all  of  the 
tenants  on  the  farm  were  assembled  for  instruction 
when  the  agent  visited  this  demonstrator.  It  has 
been  the  policy  of  those  in  charge  of  the  demonstra- 
tion work  in  the  South  to  put  on  negro  agents  in 
certain  localities  where  the  negro  population  pre- 
dominated. As  early  as  1911  there  were  regularly 
organized  seven  states  in  the  South  with  twenty- 
three  agents  for  negro  work,  which  number  has  now 
been  considerably  increased. 

It  is  a  conservative  estimate  that  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  all  the  demonstration  work  in  territories 
where  there  is  a  large  negro  population  is  spent  in 

315 


316  Use  Your  Government 

giving  direct  assistance  to  the  negro  farmers.  The 
results  of  this  have  been  very  striking,  as  the  negro 
farmer  and  his  family  seem  to  be  particularly  sus- 
ceptible to  the  system  of  instruction  used  in  the  dem- 
onstration work.  Whole  negro  communities  have 
been  reached  by  the  work  of  the  agent,  as  is  regularly 
observed  by  the  improved  condition  of  the  farm  and 
the  farm  buildings  and  live  stock  and  the  general 
appearance  of  the  whole  family. 

Clubs  among  the  negro  children  have  been  organ- 
ized for  about  three  years.  These  clubs  are  called 
Farm  Makers'  Clubs  for  the  boys,  and  Home  Mak- 
ers' Clubs  for  the  girls.  The  unit  of  acreage  for 
these  Clubs  is  the  same  as  for  the  whites,  only  one 
acre.  The  girls  are  encouraged  to  grow  1-10  acre  of 
tomatoes  and  other  garden  vegetables,  which  they 
are  taught  how  to  can  and  preserve.  It  is  suggested 
that  the  boys  plant  V2  ^^^^  ^^  corn,  14=  acre  in  pota- 
toes and  14  a^cre  in  peanuts,  as  these  are  three  ex- 
cellent food  crops.  In  a  number  of  states  special 
negro  agents  have  been  detailed  to  do  this  work  and 
good  results  are  being  secured. 

In  the  case  of  the  girls  the  main  effort  of  the 
agent  was  directed  towards  the  production  and  can- 
ning of  fruit  and  vegetables  and  the  introduction  of 
simple  home  conveniences  such  as  the  screening  of 
windows,  painting  and  whitewashing  of  fences  and 
similar  household  devices. 


CHAPTER  III.— HOME  ECONOMICS  FOR  THE 

NEGRO  WOMAN 

The  Division  of  Home  Economics  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  from  time  to  time  has  made  investiga- 
Bureau  of  tions  in  the  homes  of  the  colored  people 
Education,  of  the  Southern  states  to  find  out  exist- 
ing conditions  and  what  should  be  done  by  instruc- 
tors to  improve  them. 

During  the  year  1917  the  Division  held  a  course 
in  institutional  management  during  the  summer 
schools  at  Hampton.  The  class  was  made  up  of  ma- 
trons who  had  charge  of  the  dormitories  and  board- 
ing clubs  in  private  or  public  colored  schools  of  the 
South.  Representatives  from  ten  states  were  pres- 
ent in  the  class,  and  the  schools  from  which  the  mem- 
bers came  ranged  in  size  from  the  smaU  boarding 
school  with  15  resident  pupils  to  schools  caring  for 
250  boarding  students. 

The  lessons  included  in  the  course  for  the  daily 
two-hour  conferences  that  were  held  for  four  weeks 
were  as  follows : 

''The  relation  of  home  economics  to  food  ques- 
tions in  dormitories";  "What  constitutes  a  well 
chosen  ration :  quality,  quantity  and  variety" ; ' '  Cost 

317 


318  Use  Your  Government 

of  feeding:  food  service,  fuel,  overhead  expense"; 
"The  problems  of  marketing:  method  of  selection, 
wholesale  figures,  contracts";  ''The  problem  of  stor- 
age"; "Kitchen  equipment:  labor-sa\dng  devices"; 
"Sanitation  in  the  Kitchen.  Control  of  insect 
pests";  "Sanitation  in  the  Kitchen.  Disposal  of 
garbage";  "Table  equipment  and  service.  Table 
etiquette";  "Equipment  of  rooms";  "Sanitation 
of  dwelling  and  surroundings.  Disinfectants"; 
"Care  of  halls,  parlors,  bathrooms,  etc.";  "Laun- 
dry management,  institutional  and  personal";  "Kit- 
chen gardens:  seasonable  vegetables,  flowers  for 
table  decoration";  "Working  schedules";  "Ac- 
counting and  keeping  of  records  " ;  "  Cooperation  be- 
tween matron  and  general  teaching  force";  "Disci- 
pline." 

This  Division  last  year  issued  circulars  giving 
outlines  in  homemaking  to  the  supervisors  of  rural 
education  in  the  Southern  schools  for  the  benefit  of 
the  colored  teachers. 

A  feature  of  the  work  for  colored  women  in  the 
South  has  been  the  organizing  of  colleges  in  con- 
nection with  schools  for  their  practical  instruction. 


CHAPTER  IV.— SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GARDEN- 
ING IN  CITIES  FOR  NEGRO  CHILDREN 

Bureau  of  The  Division  of  School  and  Home 
Education.  Gardening  of  the  Bureau  of  Education 
(see  page  371)  as  far  as  possible  does  the  same 
work  for  the  white  as  for  the  negro  children. 

Special  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  plans 
would  do  much  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  idle  ne- 
gro. A  large  part  of  the  negroes  in  the  Southern 
states  live  on  the  outskirts  of  cities  and  small  towns. 
Their  homes  are  frequently  on  large  lots  and  sur- 
rounded with  vacant  lots  covered  with  weeds  and 
rubbish.  During  the  vacation  months  the  negro  chil- 
dren roam  idly  on  the  streets,  falling  into  mischief. 
Under  proper  direction  of  the  school  authorities 
they  would  make  enough  to  support  themselves  on 
these  lots  and  incidentally  these  negro  quarters 
would  be  changed  from  places  of  ugliness  to  sites  of 
beauty. 


819 


PAET  VII 
THE  WOMAN  IN  HER  HOME 


CHAPTER  I.— INVESTIGATIONS  MADE  AND 
ADVICE  GIVEN  CONCERNING  THE  PRAC- 
TICAL PROBLEMS  OF  THE  HOME 

States  The  Office  of  Home  Economics  is  the 

Relations  only  office  where  the  home  is  recognized 
Service.  ^^  j^g  entirety.  Although  many  of  the 
other  activities  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  other  Departments  affect  the  home  the  work  of 
this  office  is  organized  primarily  to  help  the  house- 
wife. 

The  investigations  of  this  office  form  the  basis  of 
the  extension  work  being  carried  on  among  the  wo- 
men and  girls  of  the  farmers'  homes.  (See  page  131.) 

The  function  of  the  Office  of  Home  Economics  is 
to  study  and  investigate : 

(a)  Food  products,  their  preparation  and  their 
uses  from  every  standpoint. 

(b)  Clothing,  household  textiles  and  other  house- 
hold supplies  with  regard  to  their  economy  and  use- 
fulness. 

(c)  Household  activities,  methods  of  performing 
same  and  means  of  reducing  the  labor  connected 
therewith. 

The  result  of  such  investigation  is  to  be  spread 

323 


324  Use  Your  Government 

to  the  public  through  cooperation  with  the  other 
offices  and  bureaus  of  the  Department  and  in  other 
ways.  Special  research  methods  and  systematic 
study  of  a  technical  and  practical  nature  is  given  to 
the  above  subjects  by  the  Office  of  Home  Economics. 
Some  of  the  technical  studies  carried  on  involve  the 
use  of  a  Respiration  Calorimeter,  which  is  used  in 
the  studies  of  household  tasks  in  order  to  determine 
how  these  should  be  performed  without  undue  waste 
of  time  and  strength,  it  being  possible  by  the  use 
of  the  calorimeter  to  find  the  exact  energy  expended 
during  the  performance  of  specific  tasks. 

Special  studies  have  also  been  made  in  rural 
homes  of  the  time  actually  taken  for  the  perform- 
ance of  household  tasks,  with  a  view  to  testing  the 
value  of  different  household  habits,  concerning 
which  experiments  have  been  made  in  the  labora- 
tories of  the  office. 

The  practical  experiments  of  the  Office  of  Home 
Economics  include  studies  of  food  and  its  prepara- 
tion, the  combination  of  foods  to  form  rational  and 
well-balanced  meals  for  both  large  and  small  house- 
holds, as  well  as  ways  of  utilizing  food  to  the  best 
and  most  economical  advantage.  The  digestibility 
of  food  products  of  various  kinds  also  receive  con- 
sideration. 

The  results  of  the  activities  of  the  office  are  issued 
in  forms  of  publications  which  may  be  divided  into 
farmers'  bulletins,  which  are  pamphlets  written  in 


Advice  on  Practical  Home  Problems     325 

popular  form  and  illustrated,  treating  of  all  prac- 
tical questions  of  home  life,  practical  reports  and 
professional  papers  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  of 
home  economics,  leaflets  and  circulars  issued  to  draw 
attention  to  points  of  special  importance. 

By  personal  contact  and  through  correspondence 
with  housekeepers  and  teachers  the  office  gathers 
very  important  information,  suggestions  for  prob- 
lems, etc. 

All  inquiries  from  housekeepers  are  given  cour- 
teous consideration  from  the  office,  whether  it  be 
possible  to  answer  their  queries  or  not.  Since  the 
20  years  this  office  has  been  established  its  work  has 
increased  in  leaps  and  bounds,  nearly  20,000,000  cop- 
ies of  bulletins  having  been  issued. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  ground  covered  by  the  of- 
fice and  its  practical  relation  to  every-day  life  a  few 
specific  instances  of  the  large  number  of  publications 
issued  must  be  given. 

''Bread  and  Breadmaking  in  the  home"  describes 
in  simple  terms  the  general  principle  on  which  bread 
making  is  based  and  suggests  the  easiest  kind  of 
method  for  making  yeast-raised  wheat  bread  in  the 
ordinary  household.  It  also  indicates  how  the  stand- 
ard recipe  may  be  modified  to  make  different  types 
of  yeast-raised  bread,  and  gives  a  few  other  recipes 
for  bread  made  from  other  cereals  than  wheat. 

''How  to  select  foods,"  in  a  series  of  three  pamph- 
lets, makes  suggestions  for  obtaining  the  best  value 


326  Use  Your  Government 

at  a  given  price.  This  series  tells  very  simply  what 
the  body  needs  to  obtain  from  its  food  for  building 
its  tissues,  keeping  it  in  good  working  order  and 
providing  it  with  fuel  or  energy  for  its  muscular 
work.  It  shows  in  a  general  way  how  the  different 
food  materials  meet  these  needs  and  groups  them 
according  to  their  uses  in  the  body.  It  suggests  that 
by  remembering  these  groups  and  having  them  all 
suitably  represented  in  the  daily  diet,  the  house- 
keeper can  easily  plan  attractive  meals  to  meet  the 
needs  of  her  family  without  a  waste  of  money  or  ma- 
terial. 

''Food  for  young  children"  deals  with  simple, 
clean,  wholesome  food  of  the  right  kind  fed  to  chil- 
dren in  proper  quantities  and  combinations.  The 
pamphlet  states  the  principles  that  should  govern 
the  choice  of  food  for  children  between  3  and  6  years 
of  age,  and  makes  specific  suggestions  for  planning 
meals. 

''School  Lunches"  tells  what  school  children 
should  be  given  to  eat  at  noon  and  what  foods  are 
best  for  the  school  lunch. 

"The  farm  kitchen  as  a  work  shop."  This  dis- 
cusses in  a  general  way  such  subjects  as  the  rela- 
tion of  the  kitchen  to  other  parts  of  the  house,  the 
size  of  the  kitchen,  the  finishing  of  the  floors,  walls 
and  ceiling,  lighting,  ventilation  and  heating,  porch- 
es and  screens,  permanent  equipment  of  the  kitchen, 
the  kitchen  as  a  laundry.     Particular  attention  is 


Advice  on  Practical  Home  Problems     327j 

given  to  the  arrangement  of  the  kitchen  stove,  cook- 
ing table  and  other  kitchen  equipment  so  that  the 
journeys  more  frequently  made  in  doing  the  kitchen 
work  are  short.  The  importance  of  adequate  equip- 
ment is  pointed  out  and  suggestions  made  for  labor- 
saving  equipment  and  expedience. 

^'Preparation  of  vegetables  for  table"  gives  va- 
rious recipes  for  the  cooking  of  vegetables. 

'*  Removal  of  stains  from  clothing  and  other  tex- 
tiles" gives  a  series  of  practical  directions  for  the 
housewife. 

The  office  has  issued  many  pamphlets  with  practi- 
cal and  detailed  directions  for  cooking  and  prepar- 
ing for  the  table  cheese,  milk,  meats,  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, and  the  canning  of  some  of  these  foods. 

'' Homemade  tireless  cookers  and  their  uses"  is  a 
pamphlet  showing  the  simple  preparation  of  a  home- 
made tireless  cooker.  This  is  a  device  for  keeping 
foods  so  hot  after  they  have  been  taken  from  the 
stove  that  the  process  of  cooking  will  be  continued 
and  completed. 

It  tells  that  a  fireless  cooker  is  best  adapted  to  the 
preparation  of  dishes  requiring  long,  slow  cooking, 
such  as  breakfast  cereals,  soups,  meats,  vegetables 
and  some  puddings.  Besides  the  bulletins  and 
pamphlets,  the  Office  of  Home  Economics  has  issued 
a  series  of  food  charts,  showing  the  composition  of 
foods.    These  food  charts  stand  in  the  same  relation 


328  Use  Your  Government 

to  the  solving  of  food  problems  as  a  map  does  in 
geography. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  last  year  there  were 
issued  2,345,715  farmers'  bulletins  to  the  public. 

The  Bureau  of  Fisheries  has  issued  a  number  of 
Bureau  of  economical  circulars  giving  brief  ac- 
Fisheries.  count  of  certain  fishes  and  their  food 
values,  containing  each  a  number  of  recipes  for  cook- 
ing them  adapted  to  various  incomes,  which  are  of 
great  use  to  the  housewife. 

The  failure  of  the  meat  supply  to  keep  pace  with 
the  demands  and  the  consequent  considerable  rise 
in  meat  prices  have  called  attention  to  the  necessity 
for  finding  other  food  supplies  of  essentially  simi- 
lar character.  The  most  important  of  these  im- 
mediately available,  and  which  exist  ''already 
grown"  as  it  were,  is  fish.  (See  page  226.)  The 
market  for  the  standard  variety  of  fishes  for  several 
years  has  been  in  proportion  to  the  supply,  but  there 
are  caught  large  quantities  of  fish  which  are  not 
known  to  the  public  and  are  therefore  rarely  eaten. 
These  fish  constitute  a  supply  available  largely 
without  additional  etfort  other  than  that  occasioned 
in  packing  and  transportation,  and  the  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  has  been  waging  a  campaign  to  secure  the 
utilization  of  these  wasted  products  of  the  sea  and 
fresh  waters. 

The  Bureau  of  Entomology  makes  extensive  in- 
vestigations   concerning   household   pests    such   as 


Advice  on  Practical  Home  Problems     329 

Bureau  of  ^ugs,  roaches,  flies,  mosquitoes,  etc.,  and 
Entomol-  issues  bulletins  for  the  benefit  of  the 
®S"y"-  housewife  determining  the  best  way  of 

getting  rid  of  these. 

For  the  housekeeper  the  Bureau  of  Mines  has  is- 
sued a  pamphlet  on  '*  Saving  fuel  in  heating  a 
Bureau  of  house,"  which  contains  fundamental  in- 
Mines.  structions  to  every  householder  in  the 

country  who  operates  a  furnace  or  a  fire  of  any  char- 
acter. The  use  of  various  kinds  of  fuel  in  different 
types  of  furnaces  is  also  discussed. 

The  Bureau  has  issued  safety  rules  on  the  hand- 
ling of  gasoline  of  value  to  every  person  operating 
a  gasoline  stove,  and  to  automobile  holders. 

The  Bureau  of  Standards  (see  page  194)  has  is- 
sued a  series  of  three  popular  circulars  which  are  de- 
Bureau  of  signed  to  furnish  standards  for  the 
Standards,  household.  These  are  entitled  respec- 
tively ''Measurements  for  the  Household,"  "Ma- 
terials for  the  Household,"  and  "Safety  for  the 
Household."  The  technical  features  of  these  sub- 
jects are  handled  in  a  manner  which  is  intelligible 
to  the  average  householder. 

The  general  public  may  send  weights  which  con- 
form to  the  standard  requirements  and  have  them 
verified  by  the  Bureau  for  a  nominal  fee.  The  brick 
piers  supporting  these  balances  run  down  to  the 
ground  independently  of  the  building  and  therefore 
do  not  taJie  up  the  vibrations.    The  room  has  double 


330  Use  Your  Government 

windows  and  double  heat  regulation.  Allowances 
are  made  for  the  buoyancy  of  the  weight  caused  by 
the  buoyant  effect  of  the  air.  The  amount  of  this 
buoyancy  is  carefully  computed,  since  it  differs  with 
every  different  material  of  which  weights  are  made. 


CHAPTER    II.— INSPECTION    OF     FOODS, 
DEUGS  AND  MEAT— PURIFYING  OF 

WATER 

Bureau  of  The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  is  entrusted 
Chemistry,  with  the  enforcement  of  the  Food  and 
Drugs  Act  which  became  effective  on  January  1, 
1907. 

The  organization  includes:  (1)  Inspectors  who 
procure  samples  for  analysis  and  information  re- 
garding the  manufacture  and  sale  of  food  and  drugs ; 
(2)  chemists  who  analyze  samples  and  make  scien- 
tific investigations  of  problems  relating  to  the  com- 
position and  adulteration  of  food  and  drugs;  (3)  the 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection,  whose  duties 
are  to  consider  all  questions  arising  in  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  upon  which  the  de- 
cision of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is  necessary, 
to  consider  correspondence  involving  interpreta- 
tions of  the  law  and  questions  arising  under  the  law, 
and  to  conduct  hearings  based  upon  alleged  viola- 
tions of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act. 

The  enforcement  of  the  law  proceeds  along  two 
lines:  First,  products  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  foreign  countries;  and,  second,  prod- 

331 


332  Use  Your  Government 

nets  manufactured  or  sold  in  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia or  the  Territories,  introduced  into  interstate 
commerce,  or  exported  from  the  United  States. 

In  the  case  of  imported  foods  and  drugs  no  prose- 
cutions are  made.  The  effort  of  the  department  is 
confined  to  preventing  the  importation  of  adulter- 
ated or  misbranded  goods  and  causing  their  reship- 
ment  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States. 
This  work  is  done  through  branch  laboratories 
which  are  located  at  the  leading  ports  of  entry, 
where  inspection  is  made  of  all  food  and  drug  prod- 
ucts that  enter  the  United  States. 

In  the  case  of  goods  shipped  into  interstate  com- 
merce, or  manufactured  or  sold  within  the  District 
of  Columbia  or  the  Territories,  the  procedure  of  in- 
spection is  necessarily  different.  The  inspectors 
visit  all  sections  of  the  country  to  secure  samples  for 
analysis  and  such  information  as  may  be  required 
by  the  department.  The  duties  of  the  inspectors  are 
as  follows:  (1)  To  investigate  the  wholesale  and 
retail  market  and  obtain  samples  of  foods  and  drugs 
shipped  in  interstate  commerce.  (2)  To  inspect 
manufacturing  establishments  and  secure  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  foods  shipped  in 
interstate  commerce.  (3)  To  investigate  the  manu- 
facture and  use  of  substances  which  are  or  may  be 
employed  for  the  adulteration  of  foods  and  drugs 
and  methods  of  preparation  which  may  lead  to  the 
damage  or  deterioration  of  foods  and  drugs,  or  to 


Inspection  of  Foods,  Drugs  and  Meat   333 

the  use  of  improper  materials  in  their  manufacture. 
(4)  To  inspect  foods  and  drugs  imported  at  ports 
where  branch  laboratories  have  not  been  established. 
In  addition  to  these  duties,  special  investigations 
are  frequently  made  by  inspectors  concerning  im- 
portant questions  of  sanitation  and  processes  of 
manufacture. 

Samples  are  shipped  to  the  laboratories  at  Wash- 
ington or  to  one  of  the  22  branch  laboratories  which 
are  located  at  the  principal  ports  of  entry  and  the 
leading  commercial  centers. 

When  goods  are  found  that  are  in  violation  of  the 
law,  the  dealer  or  shipper  is  given  an  opportunity 
to  appear  before  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the 
Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection,  or  such  official 
as  may  be  designated,  and  present  evidence  in  ref- 
erence to  the  question  at  issue.  If  after  the  hearing 
it  appears  that  the  law  has  been  violated,  the  board 
makes  the  appropriate  recommendation  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  who  certifies  the  fact  to  the 
proper  United  States  attorney  through  the  Attor- 
ney General,  together  with  the  necessary  informa- 
tion regarding  the  case.  It  is  then  the  duty  of  the 
district  attorney  to  prosecute  the  case  in  the  United 
States  district  courts. 

The  law  also  provides  that  adulterated  or  mis- 
branded  food  or  drugs  sold  or  offered  for  sale  in 
the  District  of  Columbia  or  the  Territories,  im- 
ported, delivered  for  export,  or  introduced  into  in- 


334!  Use  Your  Government 

terstate  commerce  may  be  seized  and  disposed  of  by 
destruction  or  sale,  as  the  court  may  direct. 

Bureau  of  The  enforcement  of  laws  regarding 
Animal  meat  inspection  is  carried  on  by  the 
Industry.       Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

The  purpose  of  the  Meat  Inspection  Service  is  to 
eliminate  diseased  or  otherwise  bad  meat  from  the 
general  food  supply ;  to  see  that  the  preparations  of 
the  meats  and  products  passed  for  human  consump- 
tion is  clean;  to  guard  against  the  use  of  harmful 
dyes,  preservatives,  chemicals  or  other  harmful  in- 
gredients; and  to  prevent  the  use  of  false  or  mis- 
leading names  or  statements  on  labels. 

The  work  in  connection  herewith  includes  the  in- 
spection of  animals  before  and  after  slaughter  and 
the  supervision  of  all  processes  of  preparation  and 
manufacture,  namely,  the  labeling  of  canned  and 
fresh  meat,  and  the  preparation,  curing,  canning  and 
other  processes  of  manufacture. 

The  Bureau  also  enforces  all  laws  with  regard  to 
the  hygienic  and  humane  treatment  of  live  stock  in 
interstate  commerce. 

Purifying  of  Water 

Investigations  of  water  supplies  are  conducted  by 
the  Public  Health  Service  and  accurate  records  are 
Public  maintained  of  all  public  water  supplies 

Health  in  the  United  States.    Scientific  studies 

Service.        ^j.^  inade  of  the  pollution  of  streams  and 


Government  Meat  Inspection.     Applying  inspection  mark  to  inspected 

and  passed  hog  carcasses. 


I  ^  

CN         "> 

■  -i 

f 

m' 

'i 

Raw  Oyster  Inspection. 


Purifying  of  Water  335 

coastal  waters  in  order  that  people  may  not  contract 
diseases  by  drinking  contaminated  water  supplies. 
In  connection  herewith  examinations  are  made  of 
shellfish  beds,  so  that  these  may  not  be  in  polluted 
waters. 

The  protection  of  forest  cover  at  the  head  water 
of  the  rivers  insures  a  regular,  even  supply  of  water 
Forest  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  for  the  use  of 

Service.  towns  and  cities.  Twelve  hundred  cities 
and  towns  have  their  water  supply  protected  and 
kept  free  from  contamination  on  National  Forests. 
Important  among  these  are  Los  Angeles  and  San 
Diego,  California;  Portland,  Oregon;  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah ;  and  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado. 

The  underground  circulation  of  water  through- 
Geological  out  the  country  is  a  problem  which 
Survey.  greatly  affects  the  supply  of  water  for 
domestic  use.  Investigations  concerning  this  mat- 
ter are  carried  on  by  the  Geological  Survey. 


CHAPTER  III.— THE  MOTHER  AND  BABY 

The  Children's  Bureau  was  established  by  Act  of 
Congress  on  April  9th,  1912.  The  law  concerning  it 
read : 

''The  said  Bureau  shall  investigate  and  re- 
port .  .  .  upon  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  wel- 
fare of  children  and  child  life  among  all  classes 
of  our  people  and  shall  specially  investigate  the 
question  of  infant  mortality,  the  birthrate,  or- 
phanage, juvenile  courts,  desertion,  dangerous 
occupations,  accidents,  diseases  of  children,  em- 
ployment, legislation  affecting  children  in  the 
several  States  and  Territories." 

It  therefore  originally  had  no  legislative  or  execu- 
tive power,  and  its  work  has  been  one  of  investiga- 
tion and  scientific  research  in  all  that  concerns  the 
care  and  development  of  normal  children,  as  well  as 
of  unfortunate  and  handicapped  children.  The  in- 
formation gathered  by  the  Bureau  is  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  general  public  and  officials  interested 
therein. 

However,  on  the  1st  of  September,  1917,  the  Bu- 
reau was  given  the  administration  of  the  Child  La- 
bor Act.  This  still  remains  its  only  executive  func- 
tion.   (See  page  368.) 

336 


The  Mother  and  Baby  337 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  may  be  said  to  fall  under 
the  headings  of  publications,  direct  contact  with  in- 
dividuals, cooperation  with  public  and  private  agen- 
cies, and  administration  of  the  Federal  Child  Labor 
Law. 

Owing  to  its  administrative  character,  the  most 
important  part  of  the  Bureau's  work  may  be  said 
to  be  the  issuing  of  pamphlets  in  which  are  incor- 
porated the  results  of  the  investigations  made  by  the 
Bureau. 

These  publications  up  to  the  present  may  be  di- 
vided as  follows : 

(a)  Pamphlets  for  the  individual  mother  on  pa- 
rental care  and  the  daily  care  of  her  children. 

(b)  Reports  based  on  personal  surveys  by  the 
staff  of  the  Bureau.  These  concern  Infant  Mortality, 
Child  Welfare  in  Selected  Rural  Committees,  Men- 
tal Defectives,  Community  Provision  for  Children's 
Play,  and  the  Administration  of  State  Child  Labor 
Laws. 

(c)  Pamphlets  based  on  research  other  than  the 
personal  surveys  by  the  staff  of  the  Bureau.  These 
are  "Handbook  of  Federal  Statistics  of  Children,*' 
"Maternal  Mortality,"  "Child  Labor  Legislation  in 
the  United  States, ' '  a  summary  of  all  Child  Welfare 
Laws  passed  in  the  United  States  during  the  year 
1916,  various  material  on  laws  concerning  children 
abroad,  a  tabular  statement  of  Infant  Welfare  Work 
in  the  United  States,  Birth  Registration,  Child  Wei- 


338  Use  Your  Government 

fare  Exhibits,  Baby  "Week  Campaigns,  Children's 
Health  Conferences,  etc. 

The  Bureau  has  direct  contact  with  individuals 
through : 

(a)  relations  with  mothers  during  the  personal 
investigations  by  the  staff  of  the  Bureau. 

The  Bureau's  first  personal  investigation  was 
made  in  Johnstown,  Pa.  This  began  with  the  birth 
records  and  it  took  in  all  the  children  born  within 
a  year.  The  homes  of  the  babies  were  visited  by 
the  women  agents  of  the  Bureau,  and  the  record  of 
each  child  followed  through  the  first  year  of  its  life, 
or  as  long  as  it  managed  to  survive. 

Schedules  were  planned  concerning  health,  feed- 
ing, etc.,  under  the  guidance  of  medical  authorities. 

This  is  typical  of  the  manner  in  which  the  infant 
mortality  investigations  of  the  Bureau  are  con- 
ducted. 

During  the  personal  surveys  in  rural  communities 
conferences  for  mothers  are  held.  They  are  en- 
couraged to  bring  their  children  to  these  conferences 
for  examination  by  a  child  hygiene  expert.  Advice 
is  given  to  the  parents  on  the  methods  of  obtaining 
the  best  development  for  their  children.  No  pre- 
scriptions are  given,  but  parents  are  referred  to  a 
physician  should  a  reason  for  treatment  be  found. 

A  carefully  selected  exhibit  is  also  shown  to  make 
the  advice  of  the  Bureau's  representative  more  em- 
phatic. 


The  Mother  and  Baby  339 

(b)  Publications  on  Pre-natal  Care  and  Infant 
Care  for  the  individual  mother. 

The  Bureau  has  taken  special  pains  in  getting  to 
the  individual  mother  these  pamphlets,  A  great 
deal  of  assistance  is  given  the  Bureau  by  the  maga- 
zines and  newspapers,  hospitals,  social  welfare  or- 
ganizations, and  in  some  cases  health  officials  also 
supply  names  to  the  Bureau. 

(c)  The  Bureau  is  accessible  to  general  inquiries 
as  to  child  welfare.  These  are  either  handled  by  the 
Bureau  direct  through  its  publications,  or  its  cor- 
respondence, or  they  are  passed  on  to  the  right 
channels. 

The  Bureau  cooperates  with  public  and  private 
agencies  through: 

(a)  The  Birth  Registration  Campaign  organized 
by  the  Bureau.  The  Bureau  found  that  its  various 
investigations  were  handicapped  by  the  fact  that 
very  few  of  the  States  had  complete  Registration 
of  Births.  ' '  Birth  Registration, ' '  therefore,  was  the 
subject  of  the  first  bulletin  issued  by  the  Children's 
Bureau.  In  cooperation  with  the  Federal  Bureau 
of  the  Census,  and  with  the  assistance  of  many  vol- 
unteer organizations  of  women  a  campaign  for  com- 
plete Birth  Registration  has  been  going  forward 
since  this  first  bulletin  appeared. 

(b)  Baby  Week  Campaigns.  These  are  for  the 
purpose  of  popularizing  the  work  of  infant  welfare 


340  Use  Your  Government 

and  improving  the  conditions  of  children  in  the 
particular  town  or  district  in  which  they  are  held. 

In  September,  1915,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  a  nationwide  observ- 
ance of  Baby  Week  was  promoted. 

The  pamphlet  on  "Baby  Week  Campaigns"  is- 
sued by  the  Bureau  gives  complete  suggestions  and 
programs  covering  each  day  for  the  holding  of 
such  campaigns.  These  serve  as  an  opportunity  for 
distributing  practical  literature  published  by  the 
Bureau  and  other  agencies,  and  Baby  Week  becomes 
many  times  a  starting  point  for  permanent  infant 
welfare  work. 

(c)  The  card  index  of  all  existing  legislation  af- 
fecting child  welfare  completed  by  the  Bureau.  This 
is  of  the  greatest  service  to  the  Bureau,  not  only  in 
the  answering  of  correspondence,  but  also  to  the 
various  states  in  codifying  their  laws  regarding 
child  welfare.  Whenever  requested  so  to  do,  the 
Bureau  places  at  the  disposal  of  the  authorities  in 
question  a  typewritten  copy  of  the  index  to  chil- 
dren's laws  of  that  particular  state. 

(d)  The  information  constantly  gathered  by  the 
Bureau  through  correspondence  and  the  work  of  its 
experts  is  classified,  so  that  it  may  be  available  for 
organizations  or  individuals  interested  in  the  pro- 
motion of  child  welfare. 

(e)  The  Library  of  the  Department  of  Labor  in- 
cludes a  collection  of  books  and  pamphlets  and  re- 


The  Mother  and  Baby  341 

ports  on  all  phases  of  child  welfare  both  in  the 
United  States  and  abroad,  many  of  which  are  not 
to  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  country. 

(f)  The  Bureau  possesses  two  sets  of  lantern 
slides  showing  ^^  A  Day  in  Baby's  Life,"  and  **  When 
Tom  Went  to  Work,"  which  are  loaned  free  of 
charge  to  people  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  is  interested  in  the 
Bureau  of  question  of  Kindergartens  for  young 
Education,    children. 

The  work  of  the  Kindergarten  Division  may  be 
divided  into  the  five  following  parts.: 

(1)  Statistical  surveys,  to  show  the  growth 
of  public,  private  and  charitable  kindergartens 
throughout  the  country.  \ 

(2)  Collection  and  study  of  data  concerning  j 
the  various  methods  of  kindergarten  training  I 
in  the  United  States,  the  Kindergarten  Division  | 
acting  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  interchange  i 
of  such  information.                                                             « 

(3)  Correspondence  with  parents   or  guar- 
dians, giving  information  or  advice  regarding  I 
kindergarten  work.  j 

(4)  Propaganda  work  for  the  spread  of  kin-  '■ 
dergarten  education.  i 

(5)  Collection  and  study  of  kindergarten  laws  I 
in  the  various  states,  and  dissemination  of  in-  ] 
formation  regarding  their  practical  workings.              i 

Although  the  kindergarten  is  recognized  as  a  nee-  ! 

essary  part  of  a  well-organized  school  system  and  ! 


342  Use  Your  Government 

1,879  cities  and  towns  in  the  country  have  such 
classes,  about  nine-tenths  of  the  4,300,000  children 
between  four  and  six  years  of  age  are  still  unpro- 
vided for  in  this  respect.  A  statistical  survey  is 
made  by  the  Kindergarten  Division  in  order  that 
kindergartners,  superintendents  of  schools  and  the 
public  generally  may  secure  information  at  anj-  time 
regarding  the  progress  of  the  movement  in  their 
own  and  other  communities.  This  statistical  infor- 
mation is  published  in  the  annual  report  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

The  Kindergarten  Division  is  a  clearing  house  of 
information  concerning  every  kind  of  kindergarten 
work  carried  on  in  the  United  States.  It  seeks  to 
gather  information  from  all  sources  concerning  kin- 
dergartens in  the  country,  with  a  view  to  passing  on 
this  information  to  those  in  other  states  who  might 
benefit  thereby. 

A  great  part  of  the  Division's  work  lies  in  the  di- 
rect correspondence  with  parents  who  write  to  the 
Division  for  every  kind  of  advice  concerning  their 
problems. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  way  in  which  this  is  done 
it  would  perhaps  be  best  to  quote  from  a  typical  cor- 
respondence between  a  mother  of  two  little  girls  and 
the  representative  of  the  Kindergarten  Division. 

"...  I  want  to  tell  you  how  much  I  ap- 
preciate your  almost  personal  letters  to  me.  I 
feel  that  I  can  consult  you  about  my  little  girls, 


The  Mother  and  Baby  343 

*ages  three  and  four,'  and  know  that  yon  will 
help  me.  My  children  will  play  for  a  few  min- 
utes, say  at  work  with  crayons  and  then  tire 
of  that  and  do  the  same  with  everything  ex- 
cept when  they  have  live  pets  and  their  dolls. 
Even  the  latest  additions,  a  tricycle  and  an  auto- 
mobile, they  tire  of  quickly.  Is  it  their  extreme 
youth,  or  is  it  a  fault  of  my  training  or  inherit- 
ance? The  last  seems  almost  absurd,  but  I  see 
myself  over  again  in  that  trait  in  my  little  ones. 
I  do  things,  but  if  I  can't  finish  quickly  I  lose 
patience.    Can  you  help  me?" 

The  reply  to  this  letter  runs  as  follows : 


( < 


...  No  child  of  three  or  four  years  can 
be  expected  to  have  his  attention  held  by  any 
one  interest  for  a  great  length  of  time.  That 
is  the  reason  why  in  the  kindergarten  the  pe- 
riods of  play  and  work  are  made  short.  It  is  true 
of  all  child  life;  but  as  children  grow  older 
they  can  concentrate  longer  on  one  subject,  on 
up  to  maturity,  when  they  have  sometimes 
learned  to  control  their  habit  of  attention.  They 
should  be  permitted  to  pass  from  one  activity 
to  another  at  the  age  you  have  mentioned.  They 
are  just  the  right  age  for  kindergarten  and  if 
you  have  a  place  for  them  to  play  out-of-doors 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  material  that  could  be 
used  for  them. 

'*!  will  send  you  some  suggestions  for  chil- 
dren's work  and  play. 

**....  In  making  out  for  your  use  the  en- 
closed suggestions  as  to  work  and  play  for  and 


344  Use  Your  Government 

with,  your  little  girls  I  realize  the  temptation 
that  would  probably  accompany  such  an  outline. 
For  we  are  all  inclined  to  try  to  do  too  much 
in  the  way  of  definite  direction,  and  do  not  leave 
enough  freedom  and  opportunity  for  ex- 
perimenting with  material. 

"This  summer,  I  am  expecting  the  pleasure 
of  working  and  playing  with  a  four-year-old 
boy.  My  plan  is  to  use  the  outline  as  a  guide 
and  then  keep  a  record  of  his  responses  to  the 
materials,  and  also  of  his  progress  in  skill  and 
ability  to  take  the  initiative. 

**It  will  give  me  pleasure  if  you  can  send  me 
some  account  of  the  way  your  little  daughters 
develop. ' '    The  enclosed  accompanied  the  letter. 

OUTLINE   FOR   ORGANIZED   WORK   AND   PLAY 

IN   THE    HOME 

Taking  as  a  basis  the  scientific  fact  that  every 
child  has  within  him  instincts,  tendencies,  impulses 
which  supply  the  starting  point  for  the  process  of 
education,  the  task  of  parents  and  teachers  is  to  se- 
lect material  which  will  furnish  incentives  for  the 
right  growth  of  these  tendencies. 

THE  INSTINCT   OF   NURTURE 

Material  for  out-door  use.  Garden-bed  for  each 
child ;  set  of  tools  and  watering-can ;  plant  seeds  that 
will  come  up  rapidly  (lettuce,  radish,  nasturtium, 
sweet  alyssum) ;  feed  chickens ;  scatter  crumbs  for 
birds. 


The  Mother  and  Baby  345 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Take  care  of  bird  in 
cage ;  take  care  of  gold-fish. 

THE   INSTINCT  OF  KHYTHM 

Material  for  out-door  u^e.  Swing;  see-saw; 
slide;  skipping;  marching. 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Piano  or  talking-ma- 
chine music,  simple  march  time ;  clap  the  time  with 
hands,  tap  it  with  feet ;  clap  loudly,  clap  softly,  then 
alternate  loud  with  soft,  also  fast  and  slow. 

THE   INSTINCT   OF   ARRANGEMENT 

Material  for  out-door  use.  Sand-box  or  pile, 
stones  and  shells ;  string  large  beads,  seeds,  acorns, 
and  macaroni  cut  in  short  lengths. 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Cutting  paper  by  ship- 
ping or  fringing;  pasting  designs;  coloring  with 
Crayola;  designs  in  stencil  patterns  colored  with 
crayolas. 

THE   INSTINCT  OF   CONSTRUCTIVENESS 

Material  for  out-door  use.  Building-blocks,  pieces 
of  shingle,  sticks ;  clay  for  modeling,  sand  pile  (mud- 
pies)  ;  play  store. 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Building-blocks,  sewing 
with  coarse  blunt  needle  and  thread  on  burlap,  make 
bags,  holders,  cushion  covers. 


346  Use  Your  Government 

THE   INSTINCT  OF  TALKING,   TELLING 

Material  for  out-door  use.  Listening  to  stories, 
telling  stories ;  singing  little  songs,  repeating  short 
verses. 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Make  picture-books; 
pictures  in  Stampkraft  books. 

THE  INSTINCT  OF  INVESTIGATION 

Material  for  out-door  use.  Blow  soap-bubbles; 
wash  and  dry  dolly-clothes;  float  egg-shell  or  wal- 
nut-shell boats  on  water. 

Material  for  in-door  use.  Do  little  bits  of  cookery 
and  housework ;  each  child  have  little  broom  and  her 
own  dustcloth. 

It  often  happens  that  the  absence  of  kindergartens 
in  a  community  is  due  as  much  to  lack  of  interest  in 
and  demand  for  this  kind  of  training  on  the  part  of 
the  public,  as  to  the  inability  of  school  authorities 
to  provide  it  because  of  limited  funds,  limited  space, 
or  other  reasons.  The  Kindergarten  Division  is  at- 
tempting to  meet  the  need  for  general  propaganda 
work  for  the  kindergarten,  particularly  among  par- 
ents and  women's  clubs,  in  the  following  ways: 

It  has  a  series  of  articles  on  kindergarten  methods 
for  the  home,  for  distribution  among  parents.  These 
articles  were  written  by  mothers  who  were  formerly 
trained  kindergartners,  and  are  intended  especially 
for  parents  who  do  not  live  within  reach  of  kinder- 
gartens. 


The  Mother  and  Baby  347 

The  Division  issues  a  list  of  books  for  mothers 
written  by  kindergarten  experts.  If  the  books  can- 
not be  obtained  from  local  libraries,  they  may  be 
borrowed  from  the  Library  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 

The  Division  also  issues  a  variety  of  publications 
and  popular  leaflets  on  the  kindergarten,  copies  of 
which  may  be  obtained  on  request.  They  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Kindergartens  in  the  United  States. 

The  Montessori  Method  and  the  Kinder- 
garten. 

The  Kindergarten  in  Benevolent  Institutions. 

Kindergarten  Training  Schools. 

Kindergarten  Legislation. 

Montessori  System  of  Education. 

Adjustment  Between  Kindergarten  and  First 
Grade. 

Your  Children  and  Your  Children's  Friends. 

Why  Should  the  Kindergarten  be  a  Part  of 
the  Public  School  System? 

How  the  Kindergarten  Helps  the  Grade 
Teacher. 

Suggestions  for  Arousing  Interest  in  the  Kin- 
dergarten. 

Kindergarten  Statistics,  1915-16. 

Exhibit  and  Lantern  Slides. 

Every  Little  Boy  and  Every  Little  Girl. 

Kindergarten  Legislation  in  California;  How 
We  Secured  it. 

Kindergarten  Promotion  in  Baltimore. 


348  Use  Your  Government 

Programs  of  work  for  mothers'  clubs  and  blank 
forms  for  petitioning  school  boards  for  kindergar- 
tens may  also  be  obtained  from  the  Kindergarten 
Division. 

To  help  promote  popular  meetings  on  the  kinder- 
garten subject,  the  Division  assists  in  securing 
speakers,  and  loans  exhibits,  lantern  slides  and  lec- 
ture outlines.  Its  leaflets  are  also  available  for  this 
purpose. 

Every  possible  help  is  given  by  the  Division  to 
organizations  or  individuals  interested  in  securing 
better  kindergarten  laws  for  their  states.  To  this 
end  it  supplies  information  regarding  existing  laws, 
suggestions  for  educational  work  preliminary  to 
legislative  campaigns,  methods  of  securing  support 
for  a  bill,  and  points  in  regard  to  legislative  proce- 
dure. When  requested,  letters  and  literature  are 
sent  directly  to  individuals  and  legislators  whom  lo- 
cal workers  desire  to  interest. 


CHAPTER     IV.— EMPLOYMENT     SERVICE- 
WOMEN'S  DIVISION 

Department  The  United  States  Employment  Ser- 
of  Labor,  vice  has  a  division  for  women's  work 
which  gives  advice  and  is  ready  to  find  employment 
for  women  on  the  same  basis  as  it  does  for  men. 
(See  page  268.). 


349 


PART  vin 
GIRLS  AND  BOYS 


CHAPTER    L— WHAT     THE     GOVERNMENT 
DOES  TO  ASSIST  EDUCATION 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  was  cre- 
ated by  an  Act  of  Congress  in  1867  for  the  purpose 
Bureau  of  of  "collecting  statistics  and  facts  as 
Education,  shall  show  the  condition  and  progress  of 
education  in  the  several  states  and  territories,  and 
for  diffusing  such  information  respecting  the  or- 
ganization and  management  of  school  systems,  and 
methods  of  teaching,  as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the 
United  States  in  the  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  efficient  school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote 
the  cause  of  education  throughout  the  country." 

The  Bureau,  therefore,  collects  statistics  concern- 
ing educational  institutions  both  public  and  private 
and  publishes  these  in  an  annual  report  and  in  a  se- 
ries of  bulletins.  Fifty  or  more  of  such  bulletins  are 
published  each  year.  They  contain  not  only  the  re- 
sults of  statistical  inquiries,  but  also  serve  to  inter- 
pret educational  movements  and  describe  significant 
educational  experiments. 

Titles  of  some  of  these  recent  bulletins  will  indi- 
cate their  scope: 

"Education  for  the  home";  "School  hygiene"; 
"Kindergarten  in  the  United  States";  "The  Mon- 

353 


354  Use  Your  Government 

tessori  Method";  ''Rural  school  houses  and 
grounds";  "Vocational  guidance";  ''The  public 
school  system  in  Gary,  Ind.";  "Consolidation  of  ru- 
ral schools";  "Music  in  public  schools";  "The 
teaching  of  community  civics";  "Vocational  secon- 
dary education";  "Open  air  schools";  "Adult  il- 
literacy"; "Negro  education";  "Gardening  in  ele- 
mentary city  schools";  "Pineneedle  basketry"; 
"Three  short  courses  in  homemaking." 

Many  of  these  bulletins  are  illustrated  and  are 
distributed  free  up  to  a  certain  quantity  and  then 
sold  at  a  nominal  fee,  which  is  never  more  than  15 
cents. 

There  have  also  been  developed  a  series  of  brief 
duplicated  circulars  dealing  with  topics  in  various 
fields  of  education,  more  than  1,000,000  of  which  are 
distributed  annually. 

As  the  Bureau  of  Education  is  primarily  a  clear- 
ing house  of  information  concerning  every  possible 
angle  of  education  both  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad,  the  printed  material  issued  and  circularized 
is  as  much  as  possible  in  conformity  with  a  number 
of  requests  for  information  coming  into  the  Bureau 
on  certain  subjects. 

Bureau  of  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education 
Education,  in  connection  with  city  schools  is  car- 
ried on  in  cooperation  with  the  various  state  sys- 
tems, the  Federal  authorities  assisting  the  state  of- 
ficers when  asked  so  to  do. 


Hoiv  the  Government  Assists  Education    355 

The  work  of  this  Division  may  be  said  to  fall  un- 
der the  following  headings : 

(a)  It  acts  as  a  clearing  house  of  information  on 
every  phase  of  city  school  work  all  over  the  country. 

(b)  At  the  invitation  of  the  authorities  in  charge 
it  holds  surveys  of  towns  and  cities,  which  are  con- 
ducted on  the  same  plans  as  those  of  the  rural 
schools.  (See  page  121.)  In  connection  herewith  it 
gives  standard  tests  to  pupils,  comparing  the  results 
obtained  with  the  results  of  other  cities.  The  officers 
of  the  Bureau  go  into  the  classrooms  and  observe 
the  methods  of  teaching  carried  on  there. 

(c)  The  Division  gives  advice  concerning  the 
training  of  teachers  in  service. 

(d)  It  criticizes  courses  of  study  upon  request. 

(e)  It  sends  out  bulletins  and  printed  matter  con- 
nected with  phases  of  city  school  life,  for  instance, 
school  administration  in  small  cities  and  compulsory 
education  in  different  states,  suggested  improve- 
ments carried  out  by  other  states,  etc. 

(f )  It  sends  out  regular  circular  letters  concern- 
ing the  work  done  in  city  schools,  so  as  to  suggest 
improvements. 

(g)  It  goes  into  teachers'  institutes,  giving  in- 
struction  to  teachers. 

(h)  It  gives  lectures  to  county  superintendents, 
and  at  city  conventions  on  the  problems  of  school  ad- 
ministration. 

(i)  It  possesses  complete  information  concerning 


356  Use  Your  Government 

the  laws  of  schools  and  libraries,  issuing  legislative 
circulars  designed  to  keep  the  men  connected  with 
schools  and  legislators  informed  as  to  the  move- 
ments and  progress  in  school  legislation  during  the 
session  of  the  legislatures. 

As  hardly  more  than  half  of  the  thousand  or  more 
institutions  calling  themselves  colleges  do  work  that 
Bureau  of  is  even  of  minimum  college  grade,  the 
Education,  need  for  definite  information  about  col- 
leges and  universities  led  to  the  appointment  of  a 
specialist  in  higher  education  in  the  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation. One  of  the  first  tasks  undertaken  by  this 
officer  was  an  investigation  of  the  claims  of  the  va- 
rious colleges  preliminary  to  a  classification  based  on 
admission  requirements,  graduation  standards,  and 
quality  of  work  accomplished.  At  the  present  time 
the  activities  of  the  Bureau  in  higher  education  are 
confined  mainly  to  listing  colleges,  answering  in- 
quiries of  parents  and  others  who  seek  authoritative 
information  about  the  institutions  to  which  they  pro- 
pose to  send  their  boys  and  girls,  and  to  making  edu- 
cational surveys  in  which  the  systems  of  higher  edu- 
cation in  one  state  may  be  examined  and  compared 
with  those  of  other  states. 

Lists  of  accredited  high  schools  are  prepared  and 
published  by  the  Bureau,  so  that  the  university  of- 
ficer may  know  whether  the  school  an  applicant 
comes  from  is  acceptably  regarded  by  those  best  ac- 
quainted with  it,  and  so  that  the  parent  may  know 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    357 

that  his  boy  or  girl  is  in  a  school  that  is  considered 
up  to  standard. 

In  its  surveys  of  higher  educational  institutions 
the  Bureau  considers  particularly  the  question  of 
duplication  of  effort,  so  that  every  citizen  in  a  state 
whose  colleges  are  surveyed  may  know  whether  the 
money  his  state  appropriates  is  being  spent  to  best 
advantage  or  scattered  ineffectively  among  a  num- 
ber of  institutions. 

Bureau  of  Girls  and  boys  interested  in  taking  up 
Education,  high  education  at  the  European  univer- 
sities can  apply  to  the  ''Foreign  Department"  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education  for  advice. 

This  department  also  keeps  educators  informed 
of  new  methods  of  education  in  various  foreign 
countries.  This  is  done  by  pubhshing  a  chapter  in 
the  Commissioner's  annual  report,  and  by  issuing 
regular  bulletins  based  on  the  questions  most  con- 
stantly asked  of  the  Bureau. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  has  established  recently 
a  Division  of  Commercial  Education.  This  Division 
Bureau  of  is  prepared  to  investigate  local,  state 
Education,  and  national  educational  opportunities 
for  training  for  business,  domestic  and  foreign;  to 
recommend  study  courses  and  to  furnish  informa- 
tion that  relates  to  this  phase  of  instruction ;  to  co- 
operate through  advice  and  counsel  in  the  establish- 
ment of  a  proper  relation  between  the  opportunity 
for  training  and  the  needs  of  business ;  and  to  pro- 


358  Use  Your  Government 

mote  and  further  business  in  general  by  sucb  meas- 
ures as  will  ensure  efficient  business  methods,  a  wise 
trade  policy  and  an  ever-increasing  volume  of  trade. 
Federal  ^^  ^^^  22nd  of  February,  1917,  there 

Board  for  was  passed  the  Smith-Hughes  Act,  which 
Vocational    placed  almost  $2,000,000  a  year  (to  be 

uca  ion.  jjigj-gased  each  year)  in  the  hands  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education,  to  improve 
the  efficiency  of  the  working  people  of  the  country. 

This  bill  was  the  result  of  an  investigation  made 
by  ' '  The  Commission  on  National  Aid  to  Vocational 
Education,"  created  by  Act  of  Congress  on  Janu- 
ary 20,  1914.  It  authorized  the  President  of  the 
United  States  to  appoint  a  commission  of  nine  mem- 
bers '*to  consider  the  subject  of  National  Aid  to  Vo- 
cational Education  and  report  their  findings  and 
recommendations  not  later  than  June  1,  next. ' ' 

The  scope  of  its  work  was  to  fall  under  the  fol- 
lowing six  headings : 

(1)  To  what  extent  is  there  a  need  for  Vocational 
Education  in  the  United  States! 

(2)  Is  there  a  need  for  national  grants  stimulat- 
ing the  States  to  give  Vocational  Education? 

(3)  What  kind  or  forms  of  Vocational  Education 
should  be  stimulated  by  national  grants'? 

(4)  How  far  can  the  Federal  Government  aid, 
through  expert  knowledge.  Vocational  Education  in 
the  various  states? 

(5)  To  what  extent  could  the  Federal  Government 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    359 

aid  the  states  through  national  grants  for  Vocation- 
al Education? 

(6)  Under  what  conditions  should  grants  to  the 
States  for  Vocational  Education  be  made? 

At  the  termination  of  its  investigation  the  Com- 
mission found  that  there  was  an  urgent  demand  to 
prepare  workers  for  the  more  common  occupations 
in  which  the  great  mass  of  people  find  useful  em- 
ployment. 

They  also  maintained  that  there  was  a  great  need 
of  providing  Vocational  Education  of  this  character 
for  every  part  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  con- 
serve and  develop  the  country's  resources;  to  pro- 
mote a  more  productive  and  prosperous  agriculture; 
to  prevent  the  waste  of  human  labor ;  to  supplement 
apprenticeship ;  to  increase  the  wage-eaming  power 
of  productive  workers;  to  meet  the  increasing  de- 
mand for  trained  workmen,  and  to  offset  the  in- 
creased cost  of  living. 

It  was  finally  concluded  that  Vocational  Educa- 
tion was  necessary  to  national  prosperity,  and  to 
keep  the  country's  position  in  the  markets  of  the 
world. 

It  was  recognized  by  the  Commission  that  train- 
ing for  all  the  different  vocations  is  of  importance. 
However,  agriculture,  trade,  and  industrial  educa- 
tion was  most  needed  at  the  present  time. 

Home  Economics,  although  not  recommended  by 


360  Use  Your  Government 

the  Commission,  was  afterwards  provided  for  in  the 
bill. 

The  Commission  recommended: 

That  national  grants  should  be  given  to  the  states 
for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  Vocational  Educa- 
tion in  agriculture  and  in  the  trades  and  industries. 

That  grants  should  be  given  in  two  forms : 

(a)  For  the  training  of  teachers  of  agriculture, 
trade  and  industrial,  and  home  economics  subjects. 

(b)  For  the  paying  of  part  of  the  salaries  of 
teachers,  supervisors,  and  directors  of  agricultural 
subjects,  and  of  teachers  of  trades  and  industrial 
subjects. 

The  schools  coming  under  this  grant  were  to  be 
aided  in  part  by  the  national  government,  and  were 
to  be  entirely  supported  and  controlled  by  the  pub- 
lic, the  education  given  in  them  being  of  less  than 
college  grade.  They  were  to  prepare  boys  and  girls 
of  over  14  years  of  age  for  useful  or  profitable  em- 
ployment in  agriculture,  trades  and  industries. 

In  order  to  meet  a  variety  of  needs,  the  schools 
were  to  be  of  three  types : 

(a)  All-day  schools,  in  which  practically  half  of 
the  time  could  be  given  to  actual  practise  for  a  vo- 
cation on  a  useful  or  productive  basis. 

(b)  Half-time  schools  for  young  workers  over  14 
years  of  age  which  should  extend  either  their  voca- 
tional knowledge  or  give  preparation  for  entrance 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    361 

to  a  vocation  or  extend  the  general  civic  or  voca- 
tional intelligence  of  the  pupil. 

(c)  Evening  schools  to  extend  the  vocational 
knowledge  of  mature  workers  over  16  years  of  age. 
So  much  for  the  recommendations. 

The  Smith-Hughes  Act  decreed  that  the  money  of 
the  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education  was  to 
be  used; 

(1)  For  cooperating  with  the  states  and  paying 
salaries  of  teachers  of  agricultural  subjects. 

(2)  For  the  payment  of  salaries  of  teachers  for 
trades,  industrial  and  home  economics  subjects. 

(3)  To  pay  for  the  training  of  teachers  on  all 
these  subjects. 

The  Act  establishes  a  cooperative  agreement  be- 
tween the  Federal  Government  and  the  state.  Every 
dollar  of  Federal  money  appropriated  has  to  be  met 
by  an  equal  amount  by  the  states,  local  conununity, 
or  both,  in  which  it  is  to  be  sent.  In  this  way  the 
states  and  the  nation  unite  for  the  common  purpose 
in  view. 

The  law  provides  for  the  appointment  by  the 
President  of  this  Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Edu- 
cation to  represent  the  interests  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. It  consists  of  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  Secretary  of  Commerce,  the  Secretary  of 
Labor,  and  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  together 
with  three  citizens  who  represent  respectively  the 
manufacturing  and  commercial  interests  of  the  na- 


'362  Use  Your  Government 

tion,  the  agricultural  interests  and  the  labor  inter- 
ests. 

The  Act  further  provides  that  state  boards  shall 
be  created  through  the  state  legislators  and  shall 
consist  of  not  less  than  three  members  working  in 
cooperation  with  the  Federal  Board. 

The  state  boards  have  to  lay  before  the  Federal 
Board  outlines  of  plans  by  which  it  is  proposed  to 
conduct  their  Vocational  Educati  n  activities. 
These  plans  the  Federal  Board  must  carefully  ex- 
amine. If  it  finds  them  to  be  in  accordance  with  the 
law,  it  authorizes  the  money  apportioned  to  the  va- 
rious states  to  be  paid,  this  being  regulated  on  a 
scale  of  population. 

The  Bureau  of  Education  since  1912  has  a  special 
fund  gradually  increasing  for  the  investigation  and 
Bureau  of  promotion  of  industrial  education.  The 
Education,  work  of  the  Division  of  ''Vocational 
Education"  between  1914  and  1917  was  one  of  the 
agencies  which  assisted  in  the  establishing  of  the 
Federal  Board  for  Vocational  Education.  (See 
page  358.) 

The  Bureau  of  Education  is  continuing  its  work 
of  aiding  states  and  communities  to  introduce  pro- 
grams of  vocational  work,  outlining  plans  for  the 
training  of  teachers  of  such  subjects,  holding  con- 
ferences on  the  methods  and  practise  of  manual 
training  and  vocational  education,  and  carrying  on 
educational  surveys  wherein  local  industrial  condi- 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    363 

tions  are  studied  as  a  basis  for  suitable  vocational 
training. 

States  '^^^    Division    of   *' Agricultural    In- 

Relations  struction  in  Schools"  is  occupied  with 
Service.  ij^q  teaching  of  agriculture  throughout 
the  country.  Its  work  is  done  with  the  rural  and 
secondary  schools  and  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
For  the  rural  schools : 

(1)  It  outlines  states'  courses  in  agriculture,  co- 
operating with: 

(a)  The  State  Department  of  Education. 

(b)  The  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

(2)  It  prepares  publications: 

(a)  On  general  problems  of  teaching  agricul- 

ture. 

(b)  On  specific  subjects  such  as  corn,  cotton, 

tomatoes,  poultry,  etc. 

(3)  It  prepares  statements  on  how  to  use  farmers' 
bulletins. 

(4)  It  gives  assistance  to : 

(a)  Supervising  school  officers. 

(b)  School  training  teachers  of  elementary  ag- 

riculture. 

(5)  It  assists  individual  teachers  through  corre- 
spondence. 

For  the  secondary  schools : 

(1)  It  organizes  materials: 

(a)  Courses  of  study. 

(b)  Lessons,  plans  and  outlines. 


364  Use  Your  Government 

(2)  It  draws  up  publications  for  teacliers: 

(a)  Department  bulletins. 

(b)  A  series  of  documents  on  agricultural  edu- 

cation. 

(3)  It  allows  the  use  of  materials: 

(a)  Lantern  slides  loaned  on  agricultural  sub- 
jects for  educational  purposes. 

(b)  Furnishes  lists  of  references. 

(4)  It  trains  teachers  by: 

(a)  College  training  courses. 

(b)  Aiding  teachers  in  service. 

(5)  It  studies  special  problems  in: 

(a)  Use  of  land. 

(b)  Local  extension  work. 

The  Division  publishes  for  the  benefit  of  teachers 
a  complete  list  of  publications  issued  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  which  might  be  useful  to  them 
in  their  work. 

Its  officers  hold  conferences  not  only  with  those 
training  for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  schools 
and  colleges,  but  also  with  those  training  to  be  su- 
pervisors of  such  teachers. 

The  Division  has  issued  a  course  of  elementary 
agriculture  for  the  Wisconsin  rural  schools.  The 
lessons  are  divided  month  by  month  and  applicable 
to  the  agricultural  conditions  in  Wisconsin  existing 
for  that  particular  month.  For  instance,  under  Sep- 
tember we  find : 

Seed  com  selection.  Curing  seed  corn.  Wiscon- 
sin weeds  and  weed  seeds.    Home  gardens  in  Sep- 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    365 

tember.  Ten  ear  samples  of  corn.  Selecting  the 
project  flock  of  poultry.  Review  and  management 
lesson. 

A  similar  course  of  study  has  been  issued  for 
Alabama  with  special  efforts  on  the  cotton  growing, 
and  also  for  Maryland,  other  states  being  shortly 
to  follow. 

Every  state  now  has  at  least  one  so-called  ' '  Land 
Grant"  college,  supported  in  part  by  Federal  aid. 
Bureau  of  giving  instruction  in  agriculture  and 
Education,  mechanic  arts.  Supervision  of  the  ex- 
penditure of  the  money  thus  provided  is  vested  by 
Congress  in  the  Bureau  of  Education,  which  has  a 
** specialist  in  land  grant  college  statistics,"  whose 
business  it  is  to  see  that  the  Government's  money 
is  used  for  the  purposes  contemplated  by  the  law, 
and  in  general  that  the  ''Land  Grant"  colleges,  or 
** agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,"  as  they  are 
more  often  termed,  are  doing  their  work  effec- 
tively. 

There  is  wide  difference  in  the  importance  of  this 
Federal  aid  in  the  various  states;  in  some  states 
the  Government's  contribution  forms  only  a  small 
part  of  the  total  income  of  the  state  college,  while 
in  others  it  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  available  sup- 
port. 

The  Division  of  ''Home  Economics"  of  the  Bu- 
reau of  Education  was  organized  in  1915  to  encour- 


366  Use  Your  Government 

age  the  teaching  of  home  economics.    The  work  of 
the  Division  may  be  divided  as  follows : 

(1)  It  acts  as  a  clearing  house  of  information  conr 
ceming  methods  of  teaching  home  economics  all  over 
the  United  States.  Through  this  Division  it  is  pos- 
sible for  teachers  of  domestic  economy  in  the  North, 
South,  East  and  West  to  discover  what  methods  the 
other  one  has  found  most  successful. 

(2)  Thousands  of  letters  are  sent  out  to  school 
teachers  urging  the  teaching  of  home  economics  to 
the  child  in  the  grade  school  and  high  school  and  to 
the  young  girls  of  the  colleges  and  normal  schools. 
During  April  of  this  year,  for  instance,  there  was 
sent  out  20,533  circular  letters  relating  to  home  eco- 
nomics in  answer  to  special  requests  sent  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education.  These  circular  letters  relate 
to  home  economics  in  public  schools  and  the  organi- 
zation and  demonstration  of  home  economics  in 
classes  for  the  larger  cities. 

(3)  At  the  invitation  of  those  in  charge  officers  of 
the  Division  are  sent  out  to  assist  in  surveys  of  home 
economics  in  city  school  systems  and  state  sup- 
ported institutions  of  higher  education.  These  sur- 
veys result  in  the  establishment  of  certain  stand- 
ards in  the  teaching  of  this  subject.  The  expert  of- 
ficials of  the  Bureau  on  these  occasions  give  advice 
and  make  recommendations  concerning  any  phase  of 
the  work, 

(4)  The   Division  keeps   a   complete  library  of 


How  the  Government  Assists  Education    367 

home  economics  books  and  teachers  in  the  subject 
can  arrange  to  borrow  these.  The  Division  also  is- 
sues bibhographies  on  various  subjects  in  home 
economics. 

(5)  It  also  has  a  list  of  all  schools,  universities 
and  normal  schools  teaching  home  economics,  with 
the  number  of  teachers  employed. 

It  has  a  list  of  5,000  graduates  on  home  econom- 
ics from  the  land  grant  colleges. 

(6)  Conferences  are  held  by  this  Division  for  the 
study  of  special  types  of  teaching  in  home  econom- 
ics, all  special  problems  being  discussed.  These 
conferences  are  of  great  value  to  the  normal  school 
teacher  in  the  general  policies  of  education. 

(7)  The  correspondence  of  the  Bureau  consists  in 
giving  all  manner  of  advice  to  those  interested  con- 
cerning courses  of  study,  equipment,  text-books  and 
the  solving  of  special  problems  connected  with  home 
economics. 


CHAPTER  II.— EMPLOYMENT  SERVICE  AND 

ENFORCEMENT  OF  FEDERAL  CHILD 

LABOR  ACT 

The  Employment  Service  of  the  Department  of 
Labor  has  a  division  for  girls  and  boys.  These 
Department  young  people  in  applying  for  positions 
of  Labor,  are  given  expert  advice  as  to  profes- 
sional training.  If  the  applicants  are  still  at  school 
they  are  urged  to  continue  their  studies.  If  they 
should  have  left  school  an  appeal  is  made  to  their 
parents  or  guardians  to  this  effect.  They  are,  how- 
ever, given  the  benefit  of  the  Employment  Service. 
(See  page  268.) 

On  the  first  of  September,  1917,  the  Federal  Child 
Labor  Act  came  into  force.  The  administration  of 
Children's  this  Act,  which  it  is  roughly  estimated 
Bureau.  concerns  150,000  children,  will  be  en- 
forced by  the  Children's  Bureau. 

The  Act,  generally  speaking,  forbids  the  working 
of  children  under  sixteen  years  of  age  in  any  mine 
or  quarry,  or  of  children  under  fourteen  years  of 
age  in  any  mill,  cannery,  workshop,  factory  or  manu- 
facturing establishment.     In  these  establishments, 

368 


Federal  Child  Labor  Act  369 

for  which  it  fixes  a  fourteen  year  age  limit,  it  pro- 
hibits employment  for  more  than  eight  hours  in  any 
work  day,  more  than  six  days  a  week,  or  work  be- 
fore six  a.  m.,  or  after  seven  p.  m. 


CHAPTER  in.— READING  CIRCLES 

Bureau  of  Under  the  direction  of  librarians  and 
Education,  teachers,  Boys  and  Girls'  Reading  Cir- 
cles are  organized  on  the  same  basis  as  Parents' 
Reading  Circles.    (See  page  112.)_ 


370 


CHAPTER  IV.— SCHOOL  AND  HOME  GAR- 
DENING 

The  School  and  Home  Gardening  Division  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education  may  be  said  to  do  for  the  child 
Bureau  of  of  the  cities  what  the  Boys  and  Girls' 
Education.  Club  movement  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  does  for  the  child  of  the  rural  districts. 
(See  page  126.) 

The  Bureau  of  Education  found  that  there  existed 
thousands  of  children  in  the  cities,  towns  and  manu- 
facturing villages  with  no  proper  employment  out  of 
school  hours.  Investigation  showed  that  these 
amounted  to  about  13,000,000  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  20.  Of  these,  about  9,750,000  were  enrolled  in 
the  pubhc  and  private  schools. 

Probably  only  about  5  per  cent,  of  these  children 
are  able  to  go  on  vacations  during  the  summer 
months,  and  about  85  per  cent,  remain  in  their  homes 
without  proper  employment  for  their  idle  hours. 
Most  of  them  come  from  poor  homes,  where  there  is 
little  opportunity  to  play,  and  their  spare  school 
hours  and  vacations  are  spent  on  the  streets,  with- 
out any  healthy  form  of  amusement. 

Home  gardening  done  by  these  children  under  the 

371 


372  Use  Your  Government 

direction  of  their  school  seems  to  the  Bureau  of 
Education  an  urgent  need  for  these  youngsters.  In 
all  the  manufacturing  villages,  suburban  communi- 
ties and  smaller  towns,  and  in  the  outskirts  of  the 
larger  towns  and  cities,  there  is  much  valuable  land 
in  back  yards,  vacant  lots  and  elsewhere  which 
might  easily  be  used  for  the  purpose.  The  Bureau 
is  urging  that  in  every  school  community  of  this 
kind  there  should  be  at  least  one  teacher  who 
knows  both  theoretical  and  practical  gardening. 
This  teacher  it  maintains  should  of  course  be  em- 
ployed 12  months  of  the  year,  could  teach  nature 
study,  elementary  science,  and  gardening  during 
school  hours,  and  should,  out  of  school  hours,  direct 
the  home  gardening  of  the  children  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  7  and  14  and  15. 

The  teacher  should  help  the  children  find  plots  of 
ground  near  their  homes  best  suited  for  garden 
work,  aid  them  by  some  cooperative  method  in  hav- 
ing the  lots  properly  plowed  and  prepared  for  cul- 
tivation, help  them  to  select  seeds  and  show  them 
how  to  plant,  cultivate  and  harvest  so  as  to  obtain 
the  best  results. 

The  teacher  should  spend  afternoons  and  Satur- 
days of  winter,  spring  and  fall,  when  school  is  in 
session,  and  all  of  the  vacation  days  of  summer,  vis- 
iting the  children  in  their  homes,  directing  their 
work,  and  giving  each  child  such  help  as  it  needs. 
Once  a  week  or  of  tener,  during  the  vacation  months, 


School  and  Home  Gardening  373 

the  teachers  should  assemble  their  children  in  groups 
for  a  discussion  of  their  work  and  the  methods  they 
should  employ. 

The  plan  is  that  vegetables,  berries  and  fruits 
grown  should  be  first  used  for  the  children  and  their 
families.  The  surplus  could  be  marketed  to  the 
best  advantage,  with  the  teacher's  help.  Ten  or 
fifteen  cents '  worth  of  vegetables  each  day  from  the 
garden  of  200  children  would  amount  to  quite  an 
important  sum.  In  summer  and  fall,  when  the  sur- 
plus is  large  and  cannot  well  be  marketed  to  ad- 
vantage, the  teacher  could  direct  and  help  the  chil- 
dren in  canning  and  preserving  for  winter  and  home 
use  or  for  sale. 

Experiments  made  have  shown  that  with  proper 
direction  an  average  child  can  produce  on  an  eighth 
of  an  acre  of  land  from  $50  to  $100  worth  of  vege- 
tables a  year.  A  third  of  the  children  in  the  city 
schools,  therefore,  might  easily  produce  $300,000,000 
a  year. 

In  connection  with  the  recently  passed  Child  La- 
bor Laws,  this  Bureau  draws  attention  to  the  fact 
that  a  boy  of  12  with  a  small  plot  of  land,  working 
under  careful  attention,  can  produce  more  towards 
the  support  of  his  family  than  he  could  were  he 
working  in  a  mill  or  factory. 

The  work  of  the  School  and  Home  Gardening  Di- 
vision falls  under  the  following  heads : 

(1)  Interesting     the     superintendents     of     city 


374  Use  Your  Government 

schools  and  school  boards  to  employ  at  least  one 
teacher  for  each  elementary  school  in  practical  and 
theoretical  garden  work. 

(2)  The  furnishing  of  every  kind  of  information 
concerning  this  work,  past  experiments  and  their 
results,  etc. 

(3)  In  going  to  the  various  towns  and  cities  and 
as  far  as  possible  making  extensive  demonstrations 
and  assisting  in  the  training  of  teachers  for  the 
work,  and  showing  communities  that  the  expenses 
of  the  teachers  are  amply  compensated  for  by  the 
results  achieved. 

(4)  The  issuing  of  innumerable  pamphlets  with 
instructions  for  practical  gardening  and  growing  of 
vegetables  for  pupils  as  well  as  teachers,  especially 
adapted  for  small  town  lots. 

(5)  At  request  surveying  cities  and  towns  so  as 
to  report  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  the  pos- 
sibilities for  gardening  existing  there. 


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mmmlZS^::'::'''^^  library 


FACILITY 


AA    000  582  799 


